Crawford's Language 



MADE EASY 



KEY. I. W. CRAWFORD, B. S. 



11 



Class 
Book. 




G^'Z^ 



Gopyright^°_ 



CQMRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Crawford's 



Language Made Easy 



For 



Schools and Teachers 9 Institute 



BY 

Rev. L W. Crawford, B. S. 



AUTHOR OF 



Multum In Parvo. 



Copyright 1922 
-by- 
Rev. I. W. Crawford 






m ibiy22 



A677897 

•KWV 



APPENDIX. 

1st. History of the English language. 

2nd. Rhetorical terms denned. 

3rd. Guides to the correct use of the English 
language. 

4th. It should be stressed in schools and col- 
leges. 

The English language, as spoken in America, is 
the language of English people or their descen- 
dants in America, India and other countries. The 
English language has been variously divided into 
periods by different writers. 

In the division most commonly recognized, the 
first period dates from about 450, to 1150. This 
is the period of full inflection, and is called Anglo- 
Saxon, or by many recent writers, Old English. 

The second period dates from about 1150, to 155Q 
or if four periods be recognized, from about 1150 to 
1350), and is called Early English, Middle Eng- 
lish or more commonly, Old English. 

During this period most of the inflections were 
dropped and there was a great addition of French 
words to the language. 

The third period extends from about 1350 to 
1550, and is called Middle English. During this 
period orthography became comparatively fixed. 

The last period from about 1550 is called Modern 
English. 

Rhetorical Terms. 

A periodic sentence is one which is so construct- 
ed that the complete meaning is suspended till the 
close. Example : When this edition is sold, we will 
publish others. 

(3) 



4 Appendix. 



A loose sentence is one which is so constructed 
that it may be brought to a close at one or more 
places and still be complete in sense. Example : 
The victory was won |at last| after much blood- 
shed) and display of skill in battle. 

A compromise is a sentence that is partly a 
periodic and partly a loose sentence. It consists 
of two parts, one of which is periodic, while the 
sentence taken as a whole is a loose sentence. Ex- 
ample : He sent two more, and one of them hurry- 
ing back, in affright, said that the whole British 
army was at hand. 

A balanced sentence is one which contains two 
clauses that are similar in form and either parallel 
or contrasted in meaning. 

Diction is that part of style which deals with 
the choice and use of words. 

Purity consists in the use of such words, forms 
and constructions as are justified by the practice 
of the best writers. 

NOTE. — Ere now the reader has studied case 
in Grammar, and has learned that it cannot be 
overlooked in writing and speaking. We often 
hear the following expressions : They asked you 
and I to come. Who do you suppose he meant? 
Is there anj- prospect of the court passing such 
a law? Do you think there is any chance of me 
finding him at home? 

The above sentences show that the speaker has 
no knowledge of case. If it is discovered that the 
student has passed this important point in gram- 
mar without having understood it thoroughly, it 
will be well to make him camp here until he has 
fully cleared up this ground and has mastered 
case in its broadest sense. 

Early training, a close observation of the rules 
of English and the adaptation of the habit of ex- 
pressing one 's self like the standard authors are 



Appendix. 



the roads that lead to the correct use of the Eng- 
lish. 

Many of the pupils that attend schools are out 
of homes where the English is incorrectly used; 
they get it as they first hear it, and there will b« a 
noticeable and hurtful defect in their education, if 
this growing deficiency is not stressed and reme- 
died by the schools and colleges which they attend. 




PREFACE. 



After spending twenty-three years of active 
service in the public schools and colleges of Louis- 
iana and Mississippi, each year has added to the 
conviction of the author that a more comprehen- 
sive work on the study of English grammar, a 
work so simplified that its practical value can be 
easily grasped by even that class of students and 
readers who were not brought up in an atmosphere 
of culture, would satisfy a most pressing need in 
our public schools and colleges. 

The average time spent by pupils in the public 
schools of the South does not exceed seven school 
years. His allotted time in the study of language 
would scarcely average three school years; all, or 
nearly all, of which time is spent in the study of 
language lessons and mother tongue. It is there- 
fore, a common thing to find pupils graduating 
from the public school course with practically no 
knowledge of the English language. 

The fall off in the language on the part of 
students, as above described, is due, largely, to an 
attempt at teaching literature and grammar at the 
same time and in the same lesson. This fruitless 
practice is not only opposed by every known law 
of the mind, but it is a great injustice to the poor 
child whose time in school is limited. 

In common schools, where text-books are too 
voluminous, filled with learned comments and com- 
plex rules, the child will be forced to leave school 
embarrassed and with a head full of crude im- 
pressions rather than a practical idea of the lan- 
guage. 
(6) 



Preface. 



It shall be the object of the author in bringing 
forth this series, to begin the study of grammar at 
once. 

He believes that this may be done by treating 
the parts of speech topically with language so sim- 
ple that the average child may readily grasp the 
meaning; by sentence building; by a careful study 
of sentences; by synthesis and analysis; by pars- 
ing; by calling attention (special) to errors com- 
monly made, and correcting the same.. • 

This shall be a two book series covering the pub- 
lic and high school courses in English grammar. 

I..W. CRAWFORD. 




8 


TOPICS. 




CONTENTS. 


1. 


Grammar Defined. 


2. 


Its Functions. 


3. 


Note to the Pupils. 


4. 


Nouns. 


5. 


Pronouns. 


6. 


Adjectives. 


7. 


Verbs. 


8. 


Adverbs. 


9. 


Sentence Building. 


10. 


Prepositions. 


11. 


Sentence Building. 


12. 


Conjunctions. 


13. 


Interjections. 


14. 


Number. 


15. 


Suggestions. 


16. 


Gender. 


17. 


Case in Nouns. 


18. 


Declension. 


19. 


Person and Number. 


20. 


Voice. 


21. 


Mode. 


22. 


Tense. 


23. 


Participles. 


24. 


Infinitives. 


25. 


Sentences. 


26. 


Scheme for Analyzing Sentences. 


27. 


Method of Abbreviated Parsing. 


28. 


List o? Regular Verbs. 


28. 


Capitalization. 


30. 


Punctuation. 


31. 


Questions and Answers on Rules of Syntax. 


32. 


Phrases and Clauses. 


33. 


Letter Writing. 


34. 


Models. 


(8: 


I 



TOPICS. 



35. Errors. 

36. Corrections. 

37. Model Diagrams. 

38. Parts of Speech. 

39. Errors. 

40. Miscellaneous exercises. 

41. Appendix. 




10 Lesson 1 



GRAMMAR DEFINED. 



The definition of grammar will not be thorough- 
ly understood by the pupil until he has acquired 
a knowledge of the language. 

We, therefore, give the definition and the follow- 
ing suggestions: 

Grammar is the science which treats of the prin- 
ciples of language; the study of the forms of 
speech, and their relations to one another; the art 
concern with the right use and application of the 
rules of a language, in speaking or writing. 

ITS FUNCTION. 

Grammar teaches us to think, to read, to write 
and to speak the English language correctly. 

Note — To the pupils : Whenever you make a ver- 
bal statement or write a communication, the science 
of grammar is brought into use. We think in 
words and when we lack fit words, we lack fit 
thoughts. Hence, people form their estimate of 
your ability from the language you use. 

Thousands of ministers of the gospel, whose 
knowledge of theology, whose eloquence and whose 
acquaintance with their church government and 
polity would entitle them to the best and most lu- 
crative positions in their church, are holding in- 
significant and non-paying charges, because they 
have never taken time to learn the language. 

NOUNS. 

Definition. — A noun is the name of anything. 
Look around yourself in this beautiful world and 
everything that confronts you or your mind's eye 
is a noun, because it has a name. As : Henry, box, 
boy, duck, grass, truth, etc. 



Lesson 1 11 



A noun is a naming word, and therefore, words 
which are the names of things, whether visible or 
invisible, are nouns. 

Nouns are divided into proper nouns, common 
nouns, collective nouns, abstract nouns and verbal 
nouns. 

A common noun is a name that applies to every 
one of a class of persons or things as: Girl, town, 
week, money. 

. A proper noun is the name of an individual per- 
son or thing, as : Webster, St. Louis, Monday, Lake 
Concordia. 

A collective noun is one that in the singular 
number denotes a collection of persons or things, 
as: Multitude, herd, family, faculty, congress. 

An abstract noun is one that names the quality, 
the action and the condition of a person or thing, 
apart from the person or thing itself, as : Great- 
ness, goodness, sweetness. 

An abstract noun that is the name of an action, 
as: Running, walking, jumping, is a verbal noun. 

Note. — In the construction of sentences, later on, 
you will find that words which, by their forms, are 
not nouns, are sometimes used as nouns. Such 
words take the same case an 4- are to be parsed as 
nouns. 

It will also be observed that words which, by 
their forms, are nouns, and take the place of verbs 
in sentences, should be treated as verbs. 



12 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Let the pupil write the following sentences on 
the board or on their tablets. Have them under- 
line the nouns and tell the kind given in each sen- 
tence : 

The box is large. 

London is a city. 

The horse runs fast. 

James is sick. 

The multitude assembled. 

His greatness is known. 

Congress will soon adjourn. 

The love of home is natural. 

Walking to town made him sick. 

The teacher may add to these sentences a suf- 
ficient number to accommodate a class of any size, 
and should continue this drill until every pupil of 
the class can easily pick out the nouns in any sen- 
tence and tell the class to which they belong. 



PRONOUNS. 



Definition. — A pronoun is a word used instead of 
a noun, as : James goes to town ; he walks fast, and 
he will soon return. 

But for the little word he, the sentence would 
read: 



Lesson Outline 13 



James goes to town; James walks fast, and 
James will soon return. 

Hence, you see that the pronoun he is here 
used to avoid the repetition of the word James so 
many times in the same sentence. 

Other examples: Sarah will rejoice when she 

learns that her father has come. The boys will 

be tired when they return from the field. The 
water will be better when it is purified. 

The leading pronouns are : I, thou, you, he, she, 
it, we, ye, they. 

Some of the variations are : My, me, his, him, 
her, hers, its, our, yours, their, thine. 

Pronouns are divided into three principal 
classes : Personal, relative and interrogative. The 
simple personal pronouns are : I, thou, he, she, it. 

The compound personal pronouns are : Myself, 
thyself, yourself, himself, herself. 

Note. — Each is a distributive pronoun used 
either with or without a noun. It denotes every 
one of the individuals composing a whole, consid- 
ered separately from the rest, as : Each girl re- 
ceived a diploma. Each member of the society 
paid his endowment premium. 

An adjective pronoun is a word used as an ad- 
jective and a noun, as : Some think it best to go. 

A relative pronoun is one used to represent a 
preceding noun or pronoun; called an antecedent, 
and to connect with it a clause, as: The boy who 
studies will succeed. 



14 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

The simple relative pronouns are who, which, 
that, as : Who is used to represent persons ; which 
to represent things; that and as, to represent both 
person and things. 

The antecedent of a relative pronoun is the word, 
phrase or clause for which the pronoun stands. 

The antecedent of a relative pronoun is not al- 
ways a word, it may be a word, phrase or sentence, 
as : She lost her property, which I very much re- 
gret. 

The compound relative pronouns are what, what- 
soever, whoever, whichever and whichsoever. 

These are formed from the simple relative by 
adding the adverbs: Ever, so and soever. 

An interrogative pronoun is one used to ask a 
question, as: Who knocks the door? Which of us 
does he seek? What does the child desire? 

Let the pupils select the pronouns from the fol- 
lowing sentences and tell the class to which each 
belongs. This drill should be continued until the 
pupils are able to select all the pronouns to be 
found in any sentence, and name, at sight, the class 
of pronouns to which they belong. 

Men should mean what they say. 

I, that speak unto thee, am he. 

A man that, can love can forgive. 

Hold fast to those you can trust. 

He died that we might live. 



Lesson Outline 15 



Are you the boy for whom I sent? 

She does not know the man who stole her purse. 

I bought goods myself for a friend of mine. 

We respect those that respect themselves. 

Note. — Let the teacher continue this list to Ac- 
commodate the class. We have studied the noun 
and the pronoun in the foregoing; we shall proceed 
now to study the adjective, and when we shall have 
studied a sufficient number of parts of speech, we 
shall spend some time putting them together, which 
shall come under the head of Drill in Sentence 
Building. 



ADJECTIVES. 



An adjective is a word used to describe a noun 
or pronoun, or a word that partakes of the nature 
of a noun. 

Adjectives are divided into two principal classes 
— limiting and qualifying. 

A limiting adjective is one used to restrict the 
meaning of a noun. 

Note. — The limiting adjectives a, an and the are 
sometimes called articles. 

A qualifying adjective is one that limits the ap- 
plication of a noun by denoting some quality or 
property of the noun, as : A quiet man; A beautiful 
child. 



16 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Adjectives are compared to denote different de- 
grees of quality — there are three degrees of qual- 
ity — the positive, comparative and superlative. 

The comparative denotes a higher or lower de- 
gree than the positive. The superlative degree ex- 
presses the highest or lowest degree of quality. , 

The adjective joined to a verb that expresses 
condition or motion modifies both the subject and 
the predicate, and is therefore called a predicate 
adjective, as: The dog is lame. 

An adjective joined to a verb in such a way as 
to modify the direct object of a verb is called an 
adjective attribute, as : She painted the box white. 

An adjective that follows the noun it describes 
is called an appositive adjective, as : The boy, scold- 
ed, ran. 

An adjective sometimes takes the place of a 
noun, as : Choose the good, the brave and the loyal. 

An adjective may be used abstractly, as : To be 
successful requires patience, love and energy. 

Note. — The following scheme may prove of great 
advantage to the pupils in the study of adjectives, 
after they will have made further investigations 
in the study of English. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

1. Common (blue). 

2. Proper (American). 
Descriptive 

3. Participle (glaring). 



Lesson Outline 17 



(1) Article. 
Definitive 

a Definite (the). 

b Indefinite (an, a). 

1. Demonstrative, as : That boy came 

2. Indefinite, as: Some men are good. 
Pronominal 

3. Distributive, as : Each man received 

$1.00. 

4. Each boy loveth the other (Recipro- 

cal). 



Numeral 



1. Cardinal (two, three). 

2. Ordinal (second). 

3. Multiplicative (double, 

triple). 



Relative As : Which statement could not stand. 
Interrogative As : Which horse did he buy ? 

1. Comparison (er, more). 

2. Superlatives (est, most). 
Inflection 

3. Irregular. 

4. Double comparatives. 

5. Double superlatives. 
1. Restrictive. 



18 Crawford's Language Made Easy- 

Construction (Syntax) 2. Unrestrictive. 

He is like 

1. Subjective. his mother. 
Predicate Compliment 

2. Objective. It made him sorry. 

3. Abstractly after infinitive, as: To be good 

is to be great. 

Note. — We have studied the noun, the pronoun 
and their modifiers, which are adjectives. We shall 
now proceed to study the verb and its modifiers. 
When we shall have thoroughly studied these sub- 
jects, we shall find ourselves able to construct logi- 
cal and modified sentences and tell the kind ot 
material out of which both sentences are made. 



VERBS. 



A verb is a word that expresses action, being or 
state of being. Verbs may be classified as com- 
plete and incomplete. 

A complete verb is one that does not require a 
complement to complete its meaning, a s: Oak 
wood burns slowly. An incomplete verbs is one 
that requires a complement to complete the predi- 
cate, as: 

James struck John. 
He comes very angry. 

Note.— Verbs of incomplete predication must be 
followed by a noun-term or an adjective-term to 
make complete predicates. 

Transitive, intransitive, copulative, regular and 
auxiliary verbs.. 



Lesson Outline 19 



A transitive verb is one that in the active voice 
requires an object to complete the predicate, as : 
Time brings many changes. James desires to study 
Greek. 

Plato taught that stars are suns. 

Note. — The object of a transitive verb is a de- 
pendent element — a modifier of the verb. 

An intransitive verb is one that, does not require 
an object to complete the predicate, as : Our repu- 
tation lives after us. 

Verbs that are usually intransitive are some- 
times used transitively, as : 

He eats slowly. 

He eats fish. 

The wind blows cold. 

The wind blows the fire. 

An intransitive verb may take an object which 
expresses an idea similar in meaning to the verb 
itself, as: He dreamt a dream. 

A copulative verb is one that requires a comple- 
ment, describing the subject, as: The dog is play- 
ful. She seems happy. 

Nouns and adjectives, used with copulative 
verbs, are called predicate nouns and predicate ad- 
jectives. . 

A regular verb is one that forms its past tense 
and past participle by adding d or ed to the present 
tense form, as: Love, loved; return, returned. 



20 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Note. — Regular verbs are also called weak verbs, 
because they always add d or ed; in a few cases, 
they change d to t; the present to form the past 
tense, and the past participle. 

An irregular verb is one that does not form its 
past tense and past participle by adding d or ed to 
the present tense form, as: Fall, fell, fallen; write, 
wrote, written; get, got, gotten. 

Note. — Irregular verbs are also called strong 
verbs, because they always change the vowel of the 
present tense to form the past tense and past parti- 
ciple, but do not add an ending. 

An auxiliary verb is one that aids in the conju- 
gation of other verbs, as : Will, in will go ; shall, in 
shall stay, etc. 

A defective verb is" one in which some of the 
parts are wanting, as : May, might, shall, should. 

A redundant verb is one which presents a double 
form of the past tense or past participle, or both, 
as : Sang, sing ; got, gotten ; bid, bade ; bidden, bid. 

An impersonal verb asserts action, or state inde- 
pendent of any particular subject, as : It rains ; it 
is cold; it seems; it follows. The subject of an im- 
personal verb is always in the third person, singu- 
lar number. 

Note. — Any word that does the work of a verb 
may be treated as a verb as to office and conjuga- 
tion, as : Man this boat. The word man by its 
form is a noun, but by its position in this sentence, 
is a transitive verb, taking the object boat. The 
word ship is a noun, but in the sentence — Ship the 
cattle — it is a verb. | 



Lesson Outline 21 



Note. — The pupil will understand this clearly 
when he begins to build, parse and analyze sen- 
tences. 



THE ADVERB. 



An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning 
of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

JNote (1) — An adverb is so-called, because the 
word adverb means to add to a verb, and it adds 
some idea to the verb or whatever word it may 
qualify. 

If I say, "He walks fast,'"' I add to the idea of 
walking, that of rapidity. 

Note (2)— The distinction between an adverb 
and an adjective is, that an adjective qualifies a 
noun, as: He is a good man. While an adverb 
qualifies a verb, as: He acts well; or sometimes an 
adjective or other adverbs. 

The adverb may be classified as follows : 

(1) Time (now). 

Place (here). 

Manner (continuously). 

Degree (very). 

Clause (therefore). 

Responsive (no). 

Expletive (Well, as: Well, I must go). 



22 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Numeral (once). 
Interrogative, as : Where did you go ? 
Conjunctive : Come when you can. 
Correlative, as: This is as good as that. 
In the following sentences : 

(1) Undoubtedly, he will pay the note. 

(2) Possibly, it is true. 

Undoubtedly and possibly are called adverbs of 
modality. 

Hence, adverbs that throw their force upon state- 
ments showing how the thought is conceived, as: 
"Certainly, I believe you, are adverbs of modality. 

Adverbs have no inflection ; a few have compari- 
son like adjectives ; as, brightly, more brightly, 
most brightly. 

Note. — In the sentence : There comes a time when 
we must die. 

There were giants in those days. 

There is used as an expletive — a word used to fill 
a vacancy — to introduce a sentence where the verb 
to be denotes existence. 

SENTENCE BUILDING. 

You will observe that in the foregoing, we have 
dealt with four parts of speech, viz: The noun, 
the adjective, the verb and the adverb. 



Lesson Outline 23 



Before going further with the parts of speech, 
let us use some of the material we have already col- 
lected. 

A sentence is an expression of thought in words. 

Every time you speak about anything, you use 
a sentence. 

Every sentence contains a subject and a predi- 
cate. 

"Whatever you speak of is the subject; what you 
say about the subject is the predicate, as: Birds fly. 
The word birds brings to our mind a specie of fowl. 
But the word "fly" gives us a new idea, for it tells 
us what is thought of the. word "birds." 




24 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

FOR NOTES. 



Lesson Outline 25 



The shaded line is bi-sected to designate the sub- 
ject and the predicate. On the left side is the sub- 
ject, and on the right side is the predicate. 

To make this little sentence, we have used two 
of the parts of speech we have just studied. What 
are they? Answer: Noun and verb. 

Every sentence must contain a noun and a verb. 

The subject of a sentence is always a noun, or a 
word that partakes of the nature of a noun. 

The predicate of a sentence is always a verb, or 
a word or words partaking of the nature of a verb. 

Let each pupil bring in ten sentences with a bare 
subject and a bare predicate. Illustrate by dia- 
gram. 

Sentences Containing Three Parts of Speech. — 

In the above drill you will have become thoroughly 
acquainted with sentences containing two parts of 
speech. We shall now consider sentences contain- 
ing three parts of "speech, viz : The noun, the verb 
and the adjective. 

We have learned that an adjective is a word that 
modifies a noun or a pronoun. 

The dog barks. 

The black dog barks. 




26 



Crawford s Language Made Easy 



The adjective the in the first sentence, and the 
adjectives the and black in the second sentence 
modify the noun dog. The adjective black in the 
second sentence calls attention to the kind of dog 
referred, to. 

Let the teacher drill the 
pupils on sentences of this 
class until they are able to 
tell the change made in their 
meaning by the modifiers. 

Sentences bring into use four 
parts of speech 

The little lark sings sweetly. 

The gray horse paces swiftly. 





In the sentence "The gray horse paces swiftly," 
the adjective "gray" and the adverb "swiftly" 
limit the meaning of the words "horse" and 
"pace." "Gray" shows that the horse in question 
is not a black horse, but a gray horse. 



To have said that the gray horse paces would 
have given the pupil the idea that the gait of the 
horse is that of a pacer. But the adverb swiftly 
here changes the meaning from that of an ordinary 
pacer, and gives the pupil the idea of rapidity. 



Note. — The teacher will con- 
tinue this drill until the child 
is thoroughly able to distin- 
guish between the use of the 
adverb and the adjective. 

In your study of the adverb, 
you have learned that the ad- 
verb modifies the verb, the ad- 
jective and other adverbs. 




Lesson Outline 27 



We shall give here a list of sentences, and show 
by diagram how the adverb modifies the adjec- 
tive and other adverbs. 

In the above sentences the adverb "very" modi- 
fies the adjective "beautiful," and the adverb 
"swiftly." Each pupil may be required to give 
other examples in his own words. This may be 
kept up by the teacher to great advantage until 
the pupil has thoroughly learned to build sentences 
of this class. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



Definition. — A preposition is a word used to con- 
nect other words and to show the relation between 
taem. 

A preposition shows the relation between two 
terms — an antecedent and a subsequent. The sub- 
sequent term is called the object of the preposition. 
The object of a preposition is usually a noun or a 
pronoun. 

The object of a preposition may be a phrase or a 
c^use, as: 

Adhere to what I advise. 

The ship is about to go. 

Have lambs any sense of why they skip? 

It often requires two or more words to express 
the relation that a noun term bears to the word 
which it modifies. Such a group of words should 
be treated as a unit. 



28 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

The following are examples: Out of, from out, 
as to, as for, on board of, by way of, by means of, 
because of, instead of, in regard to, in respect of, 
for the sake of. . 



This information will prove very helpful in the 
diagram and analysis of sentences. Such groups 
are called preposition phrases or complex preposi- 
tions. 

In such combinations, as : Put in, go up, go down, 
cut through, pass by, climb up, the preposition 
may be used as an adverb when it is not followed 
by a noun. 

Some verbs take a prepositional complement, the 
verb and the preposition being the equivolent of a 
transitive verb, as : 

He carried off the crown. 

Some prepositions are restricted by their mean- 
ing and by usage to definite conditions, and par- 
ticular combinations. Thus: Between always im- 
ples two and not more than two. Among implies 
more than two. Beyond is appropriate after go, 
and above after rise. In is generally, quite inap- 
propriate after verbs of motion. We go into (not 
in) the house, and perhaps study in it. 

The correct use of prepositions can be acquired 
only by correct thinking and practice. 

The following list of verbs, nouns and adjec- 
tives, given by Dr. Angus, in his Handbook of the 
English Tongue, shows the preposition specially 
associated with the respective words: 



Lesson Outline 



Accord with. 

Accuse of crime. 

Acquit persons of. 

Affinity to or between. 

Adapted to a thing or for a purpose. 

Agreeable to ; a gree with persons and to things. 

Attend to (listen). 

Upon (wait). 

Averse to, when describing feeling from, when 
describing an act or state. 

Bestow upon. 

Boast of. 

Call on. 

Change for. f 

Confer on. 

(Give), with. 

Converse. 

Confide in, when intransitive ; it to, when tran- 
sitive. 



Conformable to. 



30 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Compliance with. 

Convenient to and for. 

Conversant with persons; in affairs. 

Correspond with and to. 

Coupled with and by. 

Dependent upon. 

Derogatory to a person or thing; derogate from 
authority. 

Die of or by. 

Differ from; a difference with a person or be- 
tween things. 

Difficulty in. 

Diminution of. 

Disappointed of something we do not get, in it 
when obtained, if it does not answer our expecta- 
tions. 

Disapprove of. 

Discouragement to.. 

Dissent from. 

Eager in or about.. 

Exceptions to or against statements; to except 
from. 



Lesson Outline 31 



Expert at or in. 

Fall under or over. 

Free from. ■ 

Frown at or on. 

Glad of something gained; of or at what befalls 
another. 



Independent of. 

Inquire of or about. 

Insist upon. 

Made of or for. 

Marry to. 

Martyr for a cause, to a disease. 

Need of. 

Observance of. 

Prejudice to. 

Prejudice against. 

Profit by. 

Provide for, with, against. 

Recreant to, from. 

Reconcile to. 



32 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Reduce to order and under subjection. 

Regard for or to. 

Revolve on. 

Resemblance to. 

Replete with. 

Smile at or upon. 

Swerve from. 

Taste of; a taste for (capacity for enjoying. 

Think of or on. 

Thirst for or after. 

True to or of. 

Wait on, at or for. 

Worthy of. 

Note. — The teacher will find it very helpful to 
compose sentences showing the proper use of the 
prepositions as above outlined, and to have his 
pupils continue the work until they are able to 
select the most suitable prepositions. Public speak- 
ers and teachers often show a grave deficiency in 
the use of prepositions. 



Lesson Outline 



33 



LIST. 



in 

for 
to 

into 
with 

by 

beyond 

around 

between 

over 

against 
after 



a, as: I went a fishing. 

up 

towards 

under 

beside 

across 

before 

through 

near 

about 

within 
down 




We have just fin- 
ished the subject of 
prepositions. W e 
shall now see how 
prepositions are 
used in sentences. 

In the above diagram we have added one part of 
speech that did not occur in the previous diagrams : 
the preposition. The prepositional phrase takes 
the place of an adjective when it modifies a noun. 
It takes the place of an adverb when it modifies a 
verb. 



34 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

CONJUNCTIONS. 



A conjunction is a word used to connect sen- 
tences or parts of sentences. 



Conjunctions are divided into two principal 
classes : co-ordinate and sub-ordinate. 

Co-ordinate conjunctions are those which con- 
nect words, phrases and clauses of the same, rank, 
and are divided into three classes — copulative, al- 
ternative and adversative. 

Copulative are those which connect elements in 
harmony with each other, as: And, that, so, as. 

Alternative are those which offer or deny a 
choice, as : or, nor, either, neither, else, otherwise. 

Adversative are those which imply that the parts 
connected are opposed to each other, as : But, yet, 
however, still, only, than, nevertheless, lest, though, 
notwithstanding. 

Casual — those which connect elements, one of 
which is the cause, reason or result of the other, as : 
for, hence, therefore, consequently, because. 

Correlative — either and or, with their negatives, 
neither and nor, are called correlatives, because 
they are generally used in pairs, introducing the 
alternatives. 

Subordinate connectives are those which connect 
elements of unequal rank. 



Lesson Outline 



Subordinate connections are divided into three 

classes — those which connect substantive clauses, 

those which connect adjective clauses, and those 
which connect verbal clauses. 



Correct adverbal clauses 



T\ 



The clauses connected 
in this sentence by 
"and" are of equal rank, 
Asct^J \-£jX> hence they are shaded 

alike, and the connecting 
line is not slanting. 



An interjection is a word used to express strong 
feeling or sudden emotion, and is not related to any 
other word in the sentence. Among the interjec- 
tions commonly used are the following: Ah, 0, oh, 
pshaw, hurrah, alas, hey, huzza, etc. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

The practical use of the parts 
of speech in writing and speak- 
ing the English language. 

Ah, anxious boys 
and girls wait for n 
their parents. QzL- 

In the foregoing 
chapters we have 
studied the parts of 
speech ; we shall 
now study their 
correct arrange- 
ment in sentences. 




36 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

NUMBER. 

Definition. — Number is a grammatical form ex- 
pressing one or more than one of the objects named 
by the noun. 

The two numbers are the singular number, which 
denotes one, as : star, child ; and the plural number, 
which denotes more than one, as: stars, children. 

Formation of the Plural. — There are two methods 
of forming the plural of nouns, namely, by inflec- 
tion and by radical change. 

Some nouns have no distinguishing mark of num- 
ber. Those may be called indeterminate forms. 

General Rule. — The plural number of nouns is 
generally formed by adding the inflection s, or, 
(where euphony requires) es to the singular. 

The following classes of nouns generally add es 
for the plural: Nouns ending in ch (soft) s, sh, f, or 
z, and some nouns in o preceded by a consonant, as • 
church, churches; kiss, kisses; dish, dishes; box, 
boxes; topaz, topazes; motto, mottoes. 

Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant. 

Such nouns substitute i for y before adding es, as : 
story, stories. 

A few old English nouns that end in f or fe and 
change the f or fe into v before adding es, as : thief, 
thieves, wife, wives; life, lives. 

Radical Changes. — A few old English nouns form 
their plural by radical change, that is, by a modifi- 
cation of the vowel sound of the singular. These 





Lesson 


Outline 37 


Singular— 




Plural- 


man 




men 


woman 




women 


foot 




feet 


goose 




geese 


tooth 




teeth 


mouse 




mice 


louse 




lice 



The grammatical forms of the parts of speech are 
as follows: 

1. Number — A property of nouns, verbs and pro- 
nouns. 

2. Gender — A property of nouns and pronouns. 

3. Case — A property of nouns and pronouns. 

4. Person — A property of nouns, pronouns and 
verbs. 

5. Voice — A property of verbs. 

6. Mood — A property of verbs. 

7. Tense — A property of verbs. 

8. Comparison — A property of adjectives and 
adverbs. 

A few nouns have the same form for the plural 
as for the singular. Among them are : 



Singular — 


Plural — 


sheep 


sheep 


deer 


deer 


grouse 


grouse 



38 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

salmon salmon 

heathen heathen 

In these interminate forms the number of the 
noun is to be inferred from the context: thus. A 
sheep was feeding on the plain. Sheep were feed- 
ing on the plain. 

Double Plurals. — Some nouns have double plurals, 
each possessing a peculiar signification. 

Singular — Plural — 

brother brother (by brethren 

birth) 

cloth clothes, (kind of clothes (garments) 
clothes) 

die dies (stamps for dice (for play) 

coining) 

genius geniuses (men of genii (spirit) 
talent) 

index indexes (contents) indices (Algebraic 

signs) 

pea peas (single ones) pease (collective) 

penny pennies (coins) pence (value or 

amount) 
staves (common use) 

staff staffs (military term) 

skot shot (balls) shots (number of 

> rounds) 

fish fish (collective) fishes (individuals) 



Lesson Outline 



39 



Plurals Only. — Some nouns, the name of things, 
consisting of more than one part, or forming a pair, 
have only the plural form: 



annals 


pincers 


antipodes 


ashes 


breeches 


scissors 


drawers 


shears 


dregs 


tongs 


entails 


vituals 


nuptials 


vitals 



pantaloons 

Plurals as Singulars. — Some plural forms are 
usually treated as singular, as : amends, news, adds, 
pains, tidings, wages, thanks. 

Greek plurals used as singular: 



polities 


optics 


ethics 


mathematics 


physics 




SINGULAR— 


PLURAL— 


Latin 




formula 


formulae 


datum 


data 



40 



Crawford's Language Made Easy 



radius 


radii 


Greek 




axis 


axes 


phenomenon 


phenomena 


Italian 




bandit 


banditti 


virtuous 


virtuosi 


Hebrew 




cherub 


cherubim 


seraph 


seraphim 



Exercise.— Give the plurals of the following 
nouns : 

A — Pen, desk, book, knife, box, ox, foot, foot- 
man, candle, map, egg, cargo, church, cherub, 
monarch, tyro, focus, wife, kiss, staff. 

B — State the number and if singular, spell the 
plural, and conversely : 

Man is the only animal that laughs and weeps. 

Monkeys are the animals which most resemble 
men. 



Mice are running across the room. 



Lesson Outline 41 



The data proved to be false. 

Nebulae appeared in the heavens. 

The, mountains are covered with snow. 

Suggestions. — You have just completed the sub- 
ject "Number." You have learned several ways to 
distinguish the singular from the plural, or in other 
words, to know when a noun or a pronoun is in 
the singular or plural number. 

In writing and speaking the English language, a 
plural verb must always be used with a plural noun, 
and a singular verb with a singular noun, as : 

The boys are in the city (plural). 
The boy is in the city (singular). 

They were in town yesterday (plural). 

lie was in town yesterday (singular). 

Note. — To aid the pupils in the practical use of 
the language, we give here a list containing some 
of the plural verbs : 

Plural Verbs. — Are, were, have, do, sing, bless, 
whip, ride, go, work, write, tell, say, trust, laugh, 
make, build, repair, study, compare, suffer, blame, 
pray, look, talk, love, smell, wish, run, fly, hear, 
help, sleep, toss, throw, hush, tire, solicit, remove, 
regain, travel, listen, deserve, install, report, 
preach, teach, plow, hoe, dig, play, skip, become, 
behave, worry, push, trot, slip, growl, peep, think, 
see, view, shake, bind kiss, draw, instruct, com- 
pel, jump. The pupils will doubtless be able to se- 
lect many other plural verbs. 



42 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

The following list are the corresponding singular 
verbs : is, was, has, does, sings, blesses, rides, goes, 
works, writes, makes, whips, tells, says, trusts, 
laughs, builds, repairs, studies, compares, suffers, 
blames, plays, looks, talks, loves, smells, wishes, 
runs, flies, hears, helps, sleeps, tosses, throws, 
hushes, tires, solicits, removes, regains, travels, 
listens, deserves, installs, reports, preaches, teaches, 
plows, hoes, digs, plays, skips, becomes, behaves, 
worries, pushes, trots, slips, growls, peeps, thinks, 
sees, views, shakes, binds, kisses, draws, instructs, 
compels, jumps. 

Note. — The teacher will find it of vast importance 
to the child to have him select sentences from dif- 
ferent books, point out the subjects and predicates 
and tell whether singular or plural. 

You will find that this drill will greatly aid the 
child in the use of the language. 



GENDER. 



Definition. — Gender is that property of the noun 
and pronoun which denotes its sex or non-sex. 

The masculine gender denotes the male sex, as: 
man, boy, king. The feminine gender denotes the 
female, as: woman, girl, queen. The neuter gen- 
der denotes the want of sex, as: wood, water, etc. 
The common denotes either male or female, as: 
The faculty reported. The choir sang sweetly. The 
class recited Algebra. 

Nouns denoting the masculine gender may be 
called masculine nouns; those denoting the feminine 
gender, the feminine noun, etc. 



Lesson Outline 



43 



Methods of Distinguishing Gender — There are 
three methods of distinguishing gender. 

1st. By different words, as man, woman, boy> 
girl. 

2nd. By different terminations, as actor, actress. 

3rd. By different words placed before and after 
the noun, as: man-servant, maid-servant, land-lord, 
land-lady. 

The following extensive list may be useful for re- 
ference : 

1st. By different words: 

Masculine — Feminine — 



bachelor 


maid 


boy 


girl 


brother 


sister 


buck 


doe 


drake 


duck 


earl 


count 


father 


mother 


friar 




monk 


nun 


gander 


goose 



44 



Crawford's Language Made Easy 



gentleman 


lady 




hart 


roe 




husband 


wife 




king 


queen 




lad 


lass 




male 


female 




man 


woman 




master 


mistress 




nephew 


niece 




papa 


mamma 




ram 






buck 


ewe 




sir 


madam 




son 


daughter 




sloven 


slut 




stag 


hind 







Lesson Outline 45 


swain 


nymph 


wizard 


witch 


2nd. By different terminations : 


Masculine — 


Feminine — 


abbott 


abbess 


actor 


actress 


administrator 


administratrix 


arbiter 


arbitress 


author 


authoress 


baron 


baroness 


benefactor 


benefactress 


bridegroom 


bride 


count 


countess 


czar 


czarina 


deacon 


deaconess 


don 


donna 


duke 


duchess 


elector 


electress 


emperor 


empress 


executor 


executrix 


giant 


giantess 


governor 


governess 


heir 


heiress 


hero 


heroine 


host 


hostess 



46 



Crawford's Language Made Easy 



hunter 


huntress 


Jew 


Jewess 


langrave 


landgravine 


marquis 


marchioness 


mayor 


mayoress 


patron 


patroness 


prince 


princess 


songster 


songstress 


traitor 


traitress 


viscount 


viscountess 


votary- 


votaress 


widower 


widow 


3rd. By differ 


ant words before or after the noun 


Masculine — 


Feminine — 


he-goat 


she-goat 


man-servant 


maid-servant 


male-child 


female-child 


landlord 


landlady 


gentleman 


gentlewoman 


peacock 


pea-hen 



CASE IN NOUNS. 

Definition. — Case is a grammatical form denoting 
the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other 
word in a sentence. 

(1) Case may be called the house in which a noun 
or pronoun lives. All nouns and pronouns in sen- 
tences are in some case to be determined by the 
position occupied by the noun or pronoun in the 
sentence. 



Lesson Outline 47 



(2) When a noun or a pronoun is used as subject 
of a sentence; in apposition with the subject; as 
attribute compliment or in apposition with an at- 
tribute compliment, it is in the nominative case. 

(3) When a noun or pronoun is used as an object 
compliment, as the principal word of a prepositional 
phrase, in apposition with the principal word of a 
prepositional, or in apposition with an object com- 
pliment, it is in the objective case. 

The cases are: The nominative case, the posses- 
sive case, and the objective case. 

Rule for Possessive. — The possessive case in 
the singular number, and in those plurals which do 
not end in s in the nominative, is formed by affix- 
ing s with an apostrophe before it ('s) to the nomi- 
native case, as: boy's, girl's, John's. 

In those plurals that end in s, the possessive is 
formed by placing the apostrophe alone after s, as: 
The boys' book; The birds' feathers. 



DECLENSION. 



A noun is said to be declined when we name its 
three cases in the two numbers; the process of do- 
ing so is called declension. 





Singular 


BOY. 


Plural 


tfom. 


boy 




boys 


Poss. 


boy's 




boys' 


r )bj. 


boy 




boys 



48 



Crawford's Language Made Easy 







MAN. 






Singular 




Plural 


Nom. 


man 




men 


Poss. 


man's 




men 's 


Obj. 


man 


LADY 


men 




Singular 




Plural 


Nom. 


lady 




ladies 


Poss. 


lady's 




ladies' 


Obj. 


lady 


SHEEP 


ladies 




Singular 




Plural 


Nom. 


sheep 




sheep 


Poss. 


sheep's 




sheep's 


Obj. 


sheep 




sheep 



Exercise. — Let the pupils select from the follow- 
ing sentences noims in the nominative and in the 
objective. 

1. James loves John. 

2. John loves me. 

3. The boys like play. 



Lesson Outline 49 



4. Play tires the boy. 

5. The hunters followed the hounds. 

6. The snow covered the ground. 

7. John Milton wrote Paradise Lost. 

8. Across his brow his hand he drew. 

9. Suspicion haunts the guilty mind. 

10. The children coming home from school, look 
in at the open door. 

Note. — When two or more refer conjointly to the 
thing possessed, the sign of the possessive ('s) is 
used only in the last, as: David and Jonathan's 
friendship. 

William and Mary's home. 

But when they refer separately to the things pos- 
sessed, the sign must be used in each, as: James' 
and George's books were lost. 

This, my brother's as well as my father's 
opinion. 



PERSONS AND NOUNS. 



Definition. — Person is a grammatical form which 
shows whether the speaker is meant, the person 
spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

There are three persons: the first, the second, and 
the third — the first denoting the speaker, the sec- 
ond the person spoken to, the third the person 
spoken of. 



50 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

How Known. — Person in nouns is not marked by 
any sign, being denoted wholly by grammatical re- 
lation. 

(a) A noun used in connection with a personal 
pronoun of the first person is in the first person, 
as: "I, Paul." 

(b) A noun used in connection with a personal 
pronoun of the second person is in the second per- 
son, as: "Thou, God, seest me." 

(c) A noun that is the name of anything spoken 
of is in the third person. Nouns are always in the 
third person, except when they are in apposition 
with a pronoun of the first or second person. 



VOICE. 



Voice is a grammatical form which shows whether 
the subject names the actor, or the thing acted 
upon. 

There are two voices, the active and the passive. 

(a) In the active voice, the subject names the 
actor; (b) In the passive voice, the subject is acted 
upon, as : James struck John ; James was struck by 
John. 



MODE. 



Mode is that modification of a verb denoting the 
style or manner of predication. 

(1) The earth revolves around the sun. (Asser- 
tion of a reality.) 

(2) We may go to Europe next year. (Asser- 
tion of a possibility.) 



Lesson Outline 51 



(3) If we go, we will return in the autumn. (As- 
sertion of a condition.) 

(4) Go away. (Assertion of a command.) 

Exclusive of the infinitive, there are four modes : 
I — The indicative. II — The potential. II L — Thr» 
subjective. IV — The imperative. 

The indicative mode indicates or declares a fact, 
as: 

The soldiers fought bravely. 

The man is sick. 

John is writing a letter. 

The potential mode is used to indicate possibility, 
as: 
James can write a letter. 

John can ride a horse. 

We may be happy yet. 

The subjunctive mode is used in statement of 
something merely thought of, thus : 

If we were here, the laws would be enforced. 

This mode is called subjunctive, because the as- 
sertion made by means of it is always subjoined (as 
a condition, etc.) to a principal statement. 

A verb in the subjunctive mode is generally (not 
always) preceded by one of the conjunctions, if, 
that, less, though, unless, etc. 



52 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

But, the conjunction, is not a part of the mode 
itself, for an assertion may be made subjunctively 
by merely putting the verb or auxiliary before the 
subject, thus: "Were he," if he were; "Had he 
gone," if he had gone. 

The conjunctions, if, that, etc., may precede the 
indicative mode when the verb is used to make a 
supposition assumed as a fact. The imperative 
mode is used to express a command or entreaty, as : 
Forward march. '"Give us, this day, our daily 
bread. ' ' 



TENSE. 



Tense is that modification of a verb which denotes 
the time of the action or event asserted, and the de- 
gree of its completeness. 

Primary Tense. — There are three divisions of time 
to which an action or event may be referred : the 
present, the past and the future. Hence arise three 
primary or absolute tense : 

I.— The present. II.— The past. III.— The future. 

Secondary Tense. — An action or event may be 
spoken of as completed or perfected, with reference 
to each of the three divisions of time. Hence, arise 
three secondary or relative tenses: 

I. — The present perfect. II.— The past perfect. 
III.— The future perfect. 

(1) I see the flower (present tense). 

(2) I have walked ten miles today (present per- 
fect tense). 

(3) James wrote a letter (past tense-preterite). 



Lesson Outline 53 



Formation.— The past tense is formed either by 
inflection or by radical change. 

(1) I had written three letters before breakfast 
yesterday (past perfect tense). 

(2) I shall see my mother again (future tense). 

(3) I shall have finished my book by March (fu- 
ture perfect tense). 

The indicative mode has all the above tense. 
The potential mode has four tenses : The present, 
the present perfect, the past, and the past perfect. 

The present potential is formed by joining the 
auxiliaries, may, can or must, with the root infinitive 
to a given verb. 

The present perfect potential denotes present 
possibility, liberty or necessity with respect to an 
action regarded as past, as : 

She may have written, It is possible that she wrote 
or has written; I must have written yesterday, It 
is a matter of necessity (now) that I wrote yester- 
day. 

The past potential is formed by joining the aux- 
iliaries, might, could, would, or should, with the root 
infinitive of a given verb. 

I might, is the past tense of may, could of can; 
would of will, and should of shall. 

The past perfect potential denotes ability, possi- 
bility or liberty with respect to some past event or 
action which was not performed or did not occur, 
as: I could have helped you, if you had asked me, 



54 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

to help you, but I did not, because you did not ask 
me*? 

Subjunctive Mode. — The subjunctive mode has 
two tenses : the present and the past. 

The past subjunctive has the same form as the 
past indicative except that the personal inflection, 
st (second person) and s, (third person) are omitted. 
It is usually introduced by the conjunctions if, 
though, that, etc. 

The same is true of the present subjunctive with 
respect to the present indicative. 

Imperative. — The imperative mode has only the 
present tense. This has respect to the time of giv- 
ing the command, etc. 

The Infinitive, in addition to its simple form, 
called the present infinitive (as, to write, to walk), 
has a compound form called the perfect infinitive, 
as : to have writen ; to have walked. 



CONJUGATION. 

Conjugation is the regular systematic arrange- 
ment of a verb, according to its various grammati- 
cal forms. 

There are two conjugations: I. — The regular. 
II. — The irregular. These two conjugations are dis- 
tinguished by the mode of forming the past tense 
and the past participle. 

The auxiliary verbs are: do, be, have, shall, will, 
may, can and must. Be, do, have, will, beside being 
used as auxiliaries are also principal verbs and as 



Lesson Outline 



55 



such have the full conjugation. The parts given 
below are those only that are used as auxiliaries: 
shall, may, can and must. 

To Be. — Present — am. Past — was. Past partici- 
ple — been. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 



Singular- 



Plural- 



1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He is. 



We are. 
You are. 
They are. 



Past Tense. 



Singular — 

1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



Plural— 

We were. 
You were. 
They were. 



Future Tense. 



Singular — 

1. I shall be. 

2. You will be. 

3. He will be. 



Plural— 

1. We shall be. 

2. You will be. 

3. They will be. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



Singular — 

1. I have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 

3. He has been. 



Plural— 

1. We have been. 

2. You have been. 

3. They have been. 



56 Crawford s Language Made Easy 





Past Perfect Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular — Plural — 
I had been. 1. We had been. 
Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 
He had been. 3. They had been. 




Future Perfect Tense. 


1. 

2 

3. 


Singular — Plural — 
I shall have been. 1. We shall or will have 

been. 
You will have been. 2. Yon shall or will have 

been. 
He will have been. 3. They shall or will have 

been. 




POTENTIAL MODE. 




Present Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular — Plural — 
I may be. 1. We may be. 
Thou mayst be. 2. You may be. 
He may be. 3. They may be. 




Past Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular — Plural — 
I might be. 1. We might be. 
Thou mayst be. 2. You might be. 
He might be. 3. They might be. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular— Plural — 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 



Lesson Outline 57 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense — 

Singular — Plural — 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Past Tense — 

Singular — Plural — 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert. 2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MODE 

Infinitives. 

Present — being. Past — been. Perfect — having 
been. 

To Do. — Present — Sign of the present emphatic 
and interrogative. 

Singular — Plural — 

1. I do. 1. We do. 

2. Thou dost. 2. You do. 

3. He does. 3. They do. 

Past-sign of the past emphatic and interrogative. 
Singular — Plural — 

1. I did. 1. We did. 

2. Thou didst. 2. You did. 

3. He did. 3. They did. 

To Have. — Present — Sign of the present perfect 
tense. 



58 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Singular — Plural— 

1. I have. 1. We have. 

2. Thou hast. 2. You have. 

3. He has. 3. They have. 

Past — Sign of the perfect tense. 

Singular — Plural— 

1. I had. 1. We had. 

2. Thou hadst. 2. You had. 

3. He had. 3. They had. 

Can. — Present — Sign of the potential present. 

Singular — Plural — 

1. I can. 1. We can. 

2. Thou canst. 2. You can. 

3. He can. 3. They can. 

Past — Sign of the potential past. 

Singular — Plural — 

1. I could. 1. We could. 

2. Thou couldst. 2. You could. 

3. He could. 3. They could. 

May. — Present — Sign of the potential present. 

Singular — Plural — 

1. I may. 1. We may. 

2. Thou mayst. 2. You may. 

3. He may. ' 3. They may. 

Past — Sign of the potential past. 

Singular — Plural — 

1. I might. 1. We might. 

2. Thou mightst. 2. You might. 

3. He might. 3. Thev might. 



Lesson Outline . 59 



Shall. — Present — Sign of the future tense. 

Singular— Plural— 

1. I shall. 1. We shall. 

2. Thou wilt. 2. You will.. 

3. He shall. 3. They shall. 

Past — Sign of the potential past. 

Singular — Plural — 

1. I should. 1. We should. 

2. Thou wouldst. 2. You would. 

3. He should. 3. They would. 

Will. — Present — Sign of the future tense. 

Singular — Plural — 

1. I shall. 1. We shall. 

2. Thou wilt. 2. You will. 

3. He will. 3. They will. 

Past — Sign of the Potential Past. 

Singular— Plural — 

1. I should. 1. We should. 

2. Thou wouldst. 2. You would. 

3. He would. 3. They would. 

Must. — Present — Sign of the potential present. 

Singular — Plural — 

1. I must. 1. We must. 

2. Thou must. 2. You must. 

3. He must. 3. They must. 



REGULAR VERBS. 

To Love — Active Voice. 

Principle Parts. — Present, love ; past, loved ; past 
participle, loved. 



60 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular — Plural — 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 

3. He loves. 3. They love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Future Tense. 
Singular — Plural — 

1. I shall love. 1. We shall love. 

2. Thou wilt love. 2. You will love. 
f». He will love. 3. They will love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular — Plural — 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
Singular — Plural — 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 1. You had loved. 

2. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
Singular— Plural — 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. You will have loved. 
2. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 







Lesson Outline 61 




POTENTIAL MODE. 






Present Tense. 




Singular — 


Plural- 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I may love. 1. We may love. 
Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 
He may love. 3. They may love. 






Past Tense. 




Singular — 


Plural— 


1. 
2. 

3. 


I might love. 1. We might love. 
Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 
He might love. 3. They might love. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular — Plural — 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have lov-2. You ma}' have loved. 

ed. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular — Plural — 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have 2. You might have loved. 

loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. Thej r might have lov- 

ed. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 



62 



Crawford's Lang-uage Made Easy- 



Past Tense. 



1. If I loved. 

2. If thou loved. 

3. If he loved. 



1. If we loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If they loved. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



Love (you, thou, ye). 

Infinitives. — Present, to love; Perfect, to have 
loved; Gerunds, loving, having loved. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



To be loved (Active Voice). 



Present Tense — 


Past Tense — 


I am 


I was 


Thou art 


Thou wast 


He is 


He was 


We are 


We were 


You are 


You were 


They are 


They were 


loved. 


loved. 


Future Tense — 




I shall 




Thou wilt 




He will 




We shall 




You will 




They will 




be loved. 




Present Tense — 


Past Tense— 


I have 


I had 


Thou hast 


Thou hadst 


He has 


He had 



Lesson Outline 



63 



We have 
You have 
They have 
been loved. 



We had 
You had 
They had 
been loved. 



Future Tense — 

I shall 

Thou wilt 

He will 

We shall or will 

You will 

They will 

have been loved. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



Present — 

1 may or can 
Thou mayst or canst 
He may or can 
We may or can 
You may or can 
They may or can 
be loved. 



Past— 

I might, etc., 
Thou mightest, etc., 
He might, etc., 
AVe might, etc., 
You might, etc., 
They might, etc., 
be loved. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



Present Perfect Tense — 
Plural— 

I may, etc., have 
Thou mayst, etc., have 
He may, etc., have 
We may, etc., have 
You may, etc., have 
They may, etc., have 
been loved. 



Past Perfect Tense- 
Plural— 

I might, etc., have 
Thou mayst, etc., have 
He might, etc., have 
We might, etc., have 
You might, etc., bave 
They might, etc., have 
been loved. 



64 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense — Past Tense — 

If I be If I were 

If thou be If thou were 

If he be loved. If he were loved. 

If we be If we were 

If you be If you were 

If they be If they were 

To Love. — In the progressive form, indicative 
mode. 

Present Tense. — 1. I am loving. 2. Thou art 
loving. 3. He is loving, etc. 

Past Tense. — 1. I was loving. 2. Thou wast lov- 
ing. 3. He was loving, etc. 

Future Tense. — 1. I shall or will be loving. 2. 
Thou shalt or will be loving. 3. He shall or will 
be loving. 

Present Perfect. — 1. I have been loving. 2. Thou 
hast been loving. 3. He has been loving. 

Past Perfect. — 1. I had been loving. 2. Thou 
hadst been loving. 3. He had been loving. 

Future Perfect. — 1. I shall or will have b^en 
loving. 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been loving. 3. 
He shall or will have been loving. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



Present Tense.— 1. I may be loving. 2. Thou 

mayst be loving. 3. He may be loving. 

Past Tense. — 1. I might be loving. 2. Thou 

mightest be loving. 3. He might be loving. 



Lesson Outline 65 



Present Perfect.— 1. I may have been loving. 2. 
Thou niayst have been loving. 3. He may have 
been loving. 

Past Perfect. — 1. I might have been loving. 2. 
Thou mightest have been loving. 3. He might 
have been loving. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Present Tense.— 1. If I be loving. 2. If thou be 
loving. 3. If he be loving. 

Past Tense. — 1. If I were loving. 2. If thou were 
loving. 3. If he were loving. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — Be loving or do be loving. 

Infinitives. 

Present. — To be loving. Perfect. — To have been 
loving. Gerund. — Being loving. 

Participles. 

Present. — Being loving. Past. — Being loving. 

Perfect. — Having been loving. 

Definition. — A participle is a word that partakes 
of the nature of an adjective and a verb. They 
are called verbal adjectives. Two forms derived 
from verbs are called participles. One is made by 
annexing ing to the root of the verb, as : 

Move-ing : moving. 

The soldiers moving their gunboat gained the 
victory. 



66 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

In this sentence, the participle moving, like an 
adjective, modifies soldiers, and like a verb, takes 
the object, gunboats. 

The soldier is driving the enemy before him. 

In this sentence, the participle, driving, follows 
the verb, and modifies the subject, soldier, like a 
predicate adjective; as a verb, it takes the object, 
enemy. 

The participle ending in ing is called an imperfect 
participle, because it represents an action or state 
as incomplete or continuing. 

When the participle is combined with some form 
of be, it makes what is called the progressive form 
of the verb, from which it is derived, as : is moving, 
was talking; was riding; was laughing, etc. 

Another participle called the perfect participle 
is formed from many verbs by adding ed to the 
root, as: love, loved; serve, served; reply, replied; 
betray, betrayed. 

From certain other verbs the perfect participle 
is formed irregularly, as: spoken, from the verb, 
spoke; gone, from the verb, go; bred, from the 
verb, breed. 

The perfect participle is also used as a verbal ad- 
jective, but it represents action as completed, hence 
the name perfect. 

When it is combined with some form of be, it 
makes what is called the passive form of the verb 
from which it is derived. 

Example.— The man, waylaid by his enemy, 
stopped. The man was waylaid by his enemy. 



Lesson Outline 67 



Being, having' and having been, combined with 
some other participles, form compound participles, 
as: being broken; having been broken. 



USES OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

The par t icipl e C\ D / Dep 

may be used as an /F\ ' "^ *^ ' 
adjective modifier, <y Y 
as: Writing this \t^., &.-JZ 

book John will help 
the child. 

The participles may be used 
as an attribute compliment, as: 
The boy came crying. 

The man stood gazing. 

The participle may be used as an objective com- 
, pliment, as : This 

^L ' ^^ ' Y ^ r book kept me writ- 

er ing. 

In this sentence the partici- 
ple writing completes the predi- 
cate and belongs to the object 
"me." 

"Kept writing" 
expresses the com- 
plete action per- 
formed on me." 

The participle may be used as 

the principal 
term of the 
prepositi o n a 1 
phrase, as, "By 
doing right, we 
live long." 




Crawford's Language Made Easy 



The 



A 



■Ua 



may be the princi- ^^ 
pal word of a phrase 
used as subject or 
as an object compli- 
ment : Your teach- 
i n g the class 
brought forth the applauds of the city superin- 
tendent. 

We should discourage defaming the name of pub- 
lic men. 

The participle may be used in independent 

or absolute phrases, 
as : The stand giving 
away at Jackson, 
many people were 

injured. 

An absolute phrase consists of a noun or 
pronoun used independently with a modifying par- 
ticiple. Here the phrase, "The stand giving away 
at Jackson, ' ' though it assigns cause, lias no con- 
nective, expressed or understood, and is, therefore, 
independent, or what grammarians call an absolute 
phrase. 

INFINITIVES. 

x\n infinitive is the form of the 
verb having the properties of a 
verb and of a noun, as: 




< Ul 



J^L 



\ 



To be a poet was 
Longfellow's aim. 

Infinitives are de- 
rived from verbs, 

and express in noun A t <„-«*, \ 

form the act or state 
which the verb as- 
serts. They are lim- 
ited to a particular person and number. 



Lesson Outline 69 



Infinitives are of two classes : 
root infinitives and participle ' 
infinitives. 

A root infinitive is the simplest form of the verb 
and "usually has to placed before it, to distinguish 
it from the finite or asserting form of the verb. 

Example. — (To sing) ; (to read) ; (to live) ; (to 
go). 

After the verbs bid, dare, let, hear, make, need, 
see and some others, to is usually omitted before the 
infinitive, as : I dare not go ; we saw them start ; 
you need not stay. The other infinitive is the par- 
ticiple infinitive in ing. 

When derived from the transitive verb, the infini- 
tive in ing can govern an object and is then called 
a gerund. 

The gerund, like a noun, has case, and like a verb, 
can govern case. 

Making promises is easier than keeping them. 

They were employed ten days in building the 
school. 

The infinitive is a verbal noun, as : 

To sing improves the voice. 

He likes to walk. 

To read is his delight. 

The above examples are true, because the sub- 
ject or the object of a verb is always a noun or a 
noun-term. 



70 Crawford's Language Made Easy 



(1) The infinitive may be used as a mere noun: 
The crying of the child was heard. 

I heard the preaching of the gospel. 

(2) As an adverbal modifier: 
Decide to live right. 

We expect to write Thursday. 

As an object : He loves to write letters. 

The man seems to practice what he preaches. 

As an attribute complement: The boy's desire is 
to become educated. 

As subject of a verb : To err is human. 

As object of a participle: Deciding to start, we 
reached the city on time. 

As object of a preposition : The girl is about to 
leave. 

In apposition with a noun, as : It is not all of life 
to live. 

With an assumed subject as object of a verb : We 
know it to be her. 

We expect her to write. 

> Note. — The pupils should be drilled on the infini- 
tives until they are able to distinguish the differ- 
ence between a finite verb and an infinitive (b) a 



Lesson Outline 71 



participle and an infinitive; (c) a participle and a 
linite verb. They should be able, also, to make 
sentences showing the various uses of the infinitive. 



SENTENCES. 



A sentence is a group of words expressing an 
thought. 

Every sentence, however long or short, logically 
has but two parts — subject and predicate.. 

As to form, sentences are simple, complex and 
compound. 

As to meaning, sentences are: declarative, ex- 
clamatory, imperative and interrogative. 

Definitions. — (1) A simple sentence is one that 
contains but one subject and one predicate. 

(2)' A complex sentence is one that consists of 
an independent clause and one or more dependent 
clauses. 

(3) A compound sentence is one that consists of 
two or more independent clauses. 

(4) A compound complex sentence is one that 
contains two or more independent clauses and one 
or more dependent clauses. 

Example.— (1) The field is white (simple). (2) 
— We marched when the band played -^complex). 
(3) — The boll-weevil has come and cotton crops 
arc short (compound). (4) — The nation will pros- 
per and the world will be bettered when sin sub- 
dues (compound complex). 



72 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

AS TO MEANING. 

A declarative sentence is one that affirms or de- 
nies, as : James is sick. John did not go to town. 

An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses 
strong feeling or sudden emotion, as : How terrible 
is death to the wicked ! 

Oh that I could recall the days of my youth! 

An imperative sentence is one so worded as to 
command or entreat, as : Bring me the hat. Please 
divide with the poor. 

An interrogative sentence is one that asks a 
question, as : Whom do you see ? "When did you 
come? 

SCHEME FOR ANALYZING SENTENCE. 

(1) — Head the sentence and state its kind. * 

(2) — Select: (a) — The bare subject; (b) — the 

complete subject; (c) — The bare predicate; (d) — 

the complete predicate. 

(3) — If some of the elements are inverted, ar- 
range them iu their natural order. 

(4) — If the necessity arises, supply the missiug 
term or terms. 

(5)— If an element is complex or compound, re- 
solve it into a simple element. 

Note.— The elemnts of a sentence are the words, 
phrases and clauses that perform the various offices 
in that sentence. 



Lesson Outline 73 




Elements are simple, complex and compound. 
"We give here a simple sentence and analysis: 

The brightest pu- 
pils of this grade 
prepare lessons 
carefully at their 
home. 

Model.— It is a 
simple sentence be- 
cause it contains but 
one proposition; be- 
cause it makes a 
statement. The bare 
subject is "pupils ;"" 

the complete subject is "The brightest pupils of the 
grade;" the bare predicate is "prepare;" the com- 
plete predicate is "prepare lessons carefully at 
home." The bare subject is modified by "the. 
brightest," and "of this grade," adjective terms. 
The bare predicate is modified by "carefully" and 
"at home," adverb terms; also by the object com- 
plement, "their lessons," which complete the predi- 
cate and name that which receive the act. 

A gentleman of Biloxi, who called yesterday, left 
this morning for Alcorn. 

Analysis. — It is a complex declarative sentence 
because it is composed of an independent proposi- 
tion, a dependent proposition, and states a fact. 
The independent preposition is: A gentleman from 
Biloxi left this morning for Alcorn. The depen- 
dent proposition is who called yesterday. 

The bare subject of the principal proposition is 
gentleman. The complete subject is: "A gentle- 



74 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

man from Biloxi, who called yesterday. The bare 
predicate is left, the complete predicate is left for 
Alcorn this morning. 

The bare subject of the principal proposition is 
modified by A, from Biloxi, and who called yester- 
day, adjective terms. The bare predicate is modi- 
fied by for Alcorn yesterday, adverb terms. 



SENTENCES TO BE ANALYZED. 

(1) The industrious lad is at the head of his 
class. 

(2) The truthful child will be loved. 

(3) The man who makes peace will be blessed. 

(4) We saw the men who were approaching the 
village. 

(5) We started for home before the rain fell. 

(6) The man who visited the school yesterday 
left this morning for New Orleans. 

(7) If a man empties his purse into his head, no 
man can take it away from him. 

(8) What will it profit a man to gain the whole 
world and lose his soul? 

(9) The storm is over and the sea is calm. 

(10) The soldiers have returned, but peace has 
not been declared. 



Lesson Outline 75 



Note. — This drill should be continued until the 
pupil has learned to analyze sentences of this class. 
The diagram will prove very helpful in this work; 
it does not only show the office of the words,, 
phrases and clauses, but it enables the pupil to rec- 
ognize the picture of expressions and is of great 
aid to him in the correct use of the language. 



METHOD OF ABBREVIATED PARSING. 

In parsing a noun tell: (1) — The class to which 
it belongs. (2) — The person, gender, (if a gender 
noun) number and case. (3) — The use in the sen- 
tence. 

We shall need the aid of our friends in getting 
this book before the public. 

Parsing. — We is a pronoun, because it is used in 
place of a noun; shall need is a verb phrase, mak- 
ing an assertion concerning the person denoted by 
the subject we; the is an adjective (sometimes 
called a definite article), limiting the noun aid; aid 
and friends are nouns, because they are used as 
names; of is a preposition showing the relation be- 
tween aid and friends; in is a p reposition, showing 
the relation between aid and getting; getting is a 
gerund, it partakes of the nature of a noun and a 
verb ; this is an adjective, limiting book ; book js a 
noun; it names the object of the gerund getting; 
before is a preposition, showing the relation be- 
tween book and public ; public is a noun ; the is an 
adjective, limiting public. 

For the complete parsing of the sentence, we give 
here the following scheme : 







Subject of verb phrase 
"shall need." 

Predicate of sub. 
"We." 

Modifier of obj. 

"aid." 
Obj. of verb "shall 

need." 
Shows relation between 

"aid" and "fiiends." 
Modifies the obj. 

"friends." 


Obj. of prep. of. 

Shows relation between 

"friends" and "get" 

Obj. of prep, "in" and 


takes after it the 

obj. "book " 
Modifier of the obj. 

"book." 
Obj. of the gerund 

"bringing." 
Shows relation between 

"book" and "public" 
Modifier of the obj. 


Q 

2 

a 

si's si 

2- 

o 




38B0 


S 


• 3 • o 2 

• o : a. o : 




: 3 : 

: o 


o 


o 

tt> 
<u 

Q. 
CO 

>t- 

o 

t 

a 

Q. 


•aag 


6 

o 

a 


Neut. 
Com. 




■ 3 • 

: z : 


1 


•mnN 


Plural 
Plural 

Sing. 
Plural 


1 3 .s 1 

: i» m : 


a 
to 


•aaj 


•"> . " . . CO . 




X j is 


o 
+j 

4) 
Q. 

n 

< 

C) 
C 
0> 
CO 
0. 

M- 
o 

<o 
■a 


asaaj. 




3 














apoy{ 




T3 

a 














90I0 A 




> : 

a 

< 














o 

2 


•0 -qn S 


Per. P. 
Tran. 

Def. 

Com. 

Simple 

P. Adj. 

Com. 

Simple 


Limiting 

Com. 
Simple 

Def. 

Collective 




8SBJ3 


2SS.agd,.go,§ ■ § d. .3 S. 

;>J«Ho£tSoE4> *« oEno 

ft, a<Z0u<20-O < Z a, < Z 


r 


aanajaag 




a 


lis 


of 

our 

friends.. 


c 
.2 1 


1 


o 

J 


• 


2 

p. 





Lesson Outline 77 




LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 


Present — 


Past — 


Past Participle — 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Am, be 


was 


been 


Arise 


arose 
bore 


arisen 


Bear 


bear 


borne 
beaten 


Beat 


beat 


beat 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Bend 


bent, R 


bent, R 


Bereave 


bereft, R 


bereft, R 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Bet 


bet, R 


bet, R 


Bless 


blest, R 


blest, R 


Bid 


bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


bitten 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blown 




broke 


broken 


Break 


brake 




Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Build 


built, R 


built, R 


Burn 


burnt, R 


burnt, R 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Buv 


bought 


bought 


Can 


could 




Cast 


cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught 


caught 
chidden 


Chide 


chid 


chid 


Choose 


chose 
clove, R 


chosen 


Cleave 


cleft 


cloven 




\ cleave 


cleft 



Crawford's Language Made Easy 



Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


clad, R 


clad, R 


Come 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Crow 


crew, R 


crowed, R 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare 


durst, R 


dared 


Deal 


dealt 


dealt, R 


Dig 


dug, R 


dug, R 


Do 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Dream 


dreampt, R 


dreampt 


Dress 


dressed 


dressed 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Dwell 


dwelt, R 


dwelt, R 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


foubt 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


fung 


Fly 


flew 


rlown 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get 


got 


got, gotten 


Gild 


gilt, R 


gilt, R 


Gird 


girt, R 


girt, R 


Give 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave 


graved 


graven, R 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Hang 


hung, R 


hung 


Hang 


hung 


hanged 





Lesson Outline 79 


Have 


•* 
had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


hove, R 


hove, R 


Hew 


hewed, R 


hewn, R 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 

held 


Hold 


held 


holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Kneel 


knelt, R 


knelt, R 


Knit 


knit, R 


knit, R 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden, R 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Lead 


led 


led 


Lean 


leant, R 


leant, R 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie 


lay 


lain 


Light 


lit, R 


lit, R 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, R 


Pay 


paid 


paid 


Pen 


pent, R 


pent, R 


Put 


put 


put 


Quit 


quit, R 


quit, R 


Kap 


rapt, R 


rapt, R 


Read 


read 


read 


Rent 


rent 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


ridden 




rang 




Ring 


* '"'*' rung 


rung 



50 



Crawford's Language Made Easy 



Rise 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven, R 


Run 


ran 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, R 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Seethe 


seethed 


sodden 


SeU 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set 


set 


set 


Shake 


|j shook 


shaken 


Shall 


should 




Shape 


shaped 


shapen, R 


Shave 


; shaved 


shaven, R 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn, R 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shine 


i shone 


shone 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Show 


showed 


shown, R 


Shred 


shred 


shred 




shrunk 


shrunk 


Shrink 


shrank 


shrunken 


Shut 


shut 
sang 


shut 


Sing i 


£ sung 


; sung 




sank 


[ : sunk 


Sink 


sunk 


sat 


Sit 


sat 




Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 




slidden 


Sling 


' slid 


slid 


Slink 


slung 


slung 


Slit 1 


slunk 


slunk 




slit 


slit, R 


Smite 




smitten 





Lesson Outline 


81 


Sow 


smote 


smit 






sowed 


sown, R 




Speak 


spoke 






Speed 


spake 


spoken 




Spend 


sped 


sped 




Spill 


spent 


spent 




Spin 


split, R 


split, R 




Spit 


spun, span 


spun 




Split 


spit, spat 


spit 




Spread 


split 


split 




Spring 


spread 


spread 




Stand 


sprang 


sprung 






stood 


stood 




Stave 


staved 


staved 




Steal 


stove 


stove 




Tell 


stole 


stolen 




Think 


told 


told 






thought 


thought 




Thrive 


thrived 






Throw 


throve 


thriven 




Thrust 


threw 


thrown 






thrust 


thrust 




Tread 


; trod 


trodden 




Wax 




trod 




Weave 


waxed 


waxen, R 






wove 


woven 




Weep 


wept 


wept 




Wet 


1 wet 


wet 




Whet 


whet 


whet, R 




Will 


would 






Win 


won 


won 




Wind 


wound 


wound 




Work 


wrought, B 


wrought, R 




Wring 


wrung 


wrung 




Write 


wrote 


written 





82 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

To the Teacher. — The study of the principal parts 
of the verb, as here given, may prove to be of in- 
estimable benefit to the pupil, provided he is not 
permitted to learn them by rote and pass on. The 
author has found by actual experience, that by hav- 
ing the pupils write sentences bringing into use the 
verb in all of its tenses, is a very effectual way of 
teaching conjugation. 

When this drill has been carefully and thoroughly 
pursued, the teacher will find that this list of irre- 
gular verbs will not only serve as a reference sheet, 
but it will aid in making for the pupil a most help- 
ful foundation in writing and speaking the English 
language. 



SCHEME FOR PARSING. 

In parsing a verb, tell: 

1. Whether it is complete or incomplete. 

2. If regular, give its principal parts. 

3. Mode, tense, voice, person and number. 

4. Agreement with its subject. 
A verb-phrase: 

1. The exact kind, whether it is active, passive, 
progressive, emphatic or potential. 

2. The parts of which it is composed, auxiliary 
and principal, verb or participle. 



Lesson Outline 83 



3. Inflection of tense. 

4. Agreement with subject. 
An adverb : 

1. The class to which it belongs. 

2. The degree of comparison. 

3. The use in the sentence. 
A participle or an infinitive: 

1. The form, whether simple or a phrase. 

2. The class. 

3. The verb to which it belongs and the princi- 
pal parts of the verb. 



4. The use in the sentence. 



CAPITALIZATION. 



The first word of every sentence, every proper 
name, every direct quotation, every line of poetry, 
names of the Deity, names of days of the week, the 
months, the seasons, words derived from proper 
nouns, all proper names, names of individuals, 
points of the compass when used as nouns, common 
nouns when strongly personified, names of religious 
sects, of political parties, of holidays, important 
words in the titles of books, essays, poems, titles of 
office, of honor, names of important events, or 
epochs of time in history, should begin with a capi- 
tal letter. 



84 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

PUNCTUATION. 

First — The period is used at he close of every de- 
clarative and imperative sentence, as : 

(a) We receive good by doing good. 

(b) Give thyself to study. 

Note. — A declarative sentence should be followed 
by an interrogation point* ending with a direct quo- 
tation, as: He said: "Who composed the book?" 

Second — The period should be used after direct 
quotations, as : 

"It is not all of life to live, nor all of death to 
die. ' ' 
Third— After headings, titles or signatures, as : 

Reviews in English Literature. — Edwards King. 

Fourth — The period should be used to denote an 
abbreviation, to mark Roman numerals, and as the 
decimal point, as : A. D., M. D. C, VTL, 2.50. 

Interrogation Point. 

The .interrogation point should follow every sen- 
tence that asks a direct question, as: 

Who discovered America? 

Whom do you see? 

Who did you say was painting the sign? 

He asked: "Who served the guest?" 



Lesson Outline 85 



Exclamation Point. 

The exclamation point should follow sentences ex- 
pressing strong feeling or sudden emotion. It 
should also follow exclamatory words and phrases. 

Examples : 

How beautiful is the advent of Spring! 

0, the long and bitter winter! 

Pshaw! Hush! 

Colon. 

(1) — The colon is used to separate the principal 
members of a compound sentence, if either member 
contains a semicolon, as: 

Walker is the better preacher; Morris the better 
parliamentarian: In the one we must admire the 
man; in the other, the work. 

(2) — Before direct formal quotations or, a series, 
as : The poet speaks of the future in these words : 
"Death is the gate of endless joy." 

Their claims to the country are these: First, by 
right of discovery ; second, by right of grant ; third, 
by right of colinization. 

Between the members of a compound sentence, 
not closely connected, as: You have been liberated 
from prison : keep out of trouble. 



86 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Semicolon. 

(1) — The semicolon is used to separate the parts 
of a compound sentence where the colon or period 
would indicate too long a pause, as : Man is a toroh 
borne in the wind; but of a shadow. — Chapman. 

(2) — It is used to separate clauses and phrases in 
a series having a common dependence, as : Con- 
science goes to the child and warns; goes to the 
adult and persuades; goes to the old man, and re- 
bukes. 

(3) It is used to precede words which introduce 
an illustrative phrase, as: The teacher has certain 
parental rights; namely, to secure obedience, and 
to enforce the laws of the school. 

Comma. 

(1) — The comma is used to separate the short 
members of a compound sentence when closely con- 
nected, as : I think, therefore, I am. — Descartes. 

(2) — To separate the subject from the predicate 
when the former is long complicated, or ends with 
a verb and the predicate begins with one, as: He 
who resists small temptations, is likely to overcome 
greater ones. 

Whatever is, is right. 

(3) — To separate adjectives, phrases, or clauses, 
when not restrictive, from words which they modify, 
as: Being sleepy, they retire. Roosevelt killed an 
animal, which is called a bear. 

(4) — To separate introductory adverbal phrases 
or clauses which they modify, as: The band having 
arrived, the music was played on time. 



Lesson Outline 87 



(5) — To separate a series of words or phrases in 
the same construction, as : "With his power, by his 
power, and through his power, all things are accom- 
plished. Self reliance, personal chastity, and purity 
of soul are elements of true manhood. 

(6) — To separate contrasted elements, as: We 
succeed by honesty, not dishonesty. 

(7) — Before short informal questions, as: David 
says: "I have never seen the righteous forsaken, 
nor his seed begging bread." 

(8) — To separate parenthetical, appositive, or in- 
depent elements from the rest of the sentence, as : 
Galloway, the orator, was Bishop. She is, notwith- 
standing, deserving of praise. Washington, thou 
meanest well. 

(9) — To indicate ellipsis, as: Search others for 
virtues, thyself for thy vices. — Franklin. 

Quotation Marks. 

Quotation marks are used: 

1. To enclose words in the language of another, 
as : " Honesty is the best policy, ' ' say the American 
people. 

2. To enclose titles of books, essays, newspapers, 
etc., when not otherwise distinguished, as: " 'Toilers 
of the Sea' is one of Hugo's strongest novels." 

Dash. 

The dash is used to indicate an abrupt change in 
the construction of a sentence, as : From all 
around — Earth and her waters — and depths of air 
— comes a still voice. — Bryant. 



88 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Parenthesis. 

Marks of parenthesis are used to enclose explana- 
tory remarks that are not grammatically connected 
with the sentence, as: 

Agasis says (and he is good authority) that 
America is the old world. 

Brackets. 

Brackets enclose words inserted in quotations 
for the sake of explanation, as: 

They [the hunters] are hard behind us. 

Apostrophe. 

The apostrophe is used to show the possessive 
case of nouns, to denote the plural of •figures and 
letters, and to mark the emission of letters, as. 

The sun's rays, 3's, B's, I can't sing. 

Hypheji. 

The hyphen is used between the parts of a com- 
pound word, to divide a word into syllables, and to 
mark the division of a word at the end of a line, as : 

Steam-boat, son-in-law, co-operate. 

Note. — Punctuation should be taught with every 
written passage before and after the child begins 
the study of grammar. This may be done very ef- 
fectually by never permitting Mm to wrtie a sen- 
tence without placing therein the proper punctua- 
tion marks. 



Lesson Outline 89 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON RULES OF 
SYNTAX. 



(1) What is grammar? 

(a) Grammar is a science that treats of the form, 
use and general principles of language. 

(2) "What is English grammar? 

(a) English grammar treats of the principles and 
usages of the English language. 

(3) What is syntax? 

(a) Syntax is that part of grammar which treats 
of the construction of sentences; the correct ar- 
rangement of words in sentences according to best 
usage. It also treats of the agreement, government 
and position of parts of speech. 

(4) What is agreement? 

(a) Agreement is the similarity of the parts of 
speech in their properties; as a plural noun and a 
plural verb are said to agree in number. 

(5) What is government? 

(a) It is the power that some parts of speech 
are said to have in determining the properties of 
others, as a preposition requires its object to be in 
the objective case, a transitive verb requires that its 
compliment should be in the objective ease, a plural 
subject demands a plural verb. 

(6) What is position? 



90 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

(a) Position is the place the word properly oc- 
cupies with re-pect to other words in the sentence. 

(7) In what case is the subject of a finite verb? 
(a) Nominative: (He has completed his work.) 

(8) What verb is always preceded and followed 
by the same case? 

(a) The verb to be (It is I) (It is she). 

(9) When is a word in the objective case? 

(a) When it is the object of a transitive verb, 
of a preposition, of a participle or an infinitive. 

1. They study Latin. 

2. Play music for me. 

3. They were careful in taming the lion. 

4. We worked hard to secure the prize. 

(10) In what case are appositives? 

(a) Appositives are in the same case as the 
nouns that they modify, as: 

It was your sister, she who recited last night. 

I met your friend, he who is a drummer for the 
Jones Dry Goods Co. 

(11) How may the proper use of pronouns be 
determined ? 



Lesson Outline 91 



(a) A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, 
gender, number and person. 

(12) How may the use of the right verb be de- 
termined in writing and speaking? 

(a) The verb must agree with its subject in per- 
son and number, as : 
Singular Plural — 

The child plays. Children play. 

The horse runs. Horses run. 

She is smart. They are smart. 

I was late. They were late. 

He does good work. They do good work. 

She has good work. They have good work. 

When the subject is a collective noun denoting 
many considered as a whole, as : 

The army was sent to Richmond. 

The regiment is crossing the lake. — The singular 
verb is used. 

When the subject has a co-ordinate construction, 
the members of which, considered separately or to- 
gether, convey unity of idea, the singular verb 
should be used. Example : 

He is the intelligence, the central figure, and the 
prime mover of the order. 

Every grass blade, every flower, every bud and 
every plant, is an essential part of the plan of 
nature. 

When the subject is a collective noun, denoting 
multitude, the plural verb should be used, as: 



92 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

The council were divided in their opinion. 
A number of persons were killed. 

(13) When should the present infinitive be used? 
(a) The present infinitive should follow the past 

tense of the verb, except when the time indicated by 
the infinitive is prior to that indicated by the verb, 
as : 

I contemplated singing yesterday. t 

I planned to go last week. 

They believed him to have been dealt with un- 
fairly. 

(14) How is the form of a pronoun determined? 

(a) By the meaning of the antecedent, as: 

The leading lawyer and scholar, has given out a 
statement. 

The father, as well as his son, has gone to court. 

Both painting and music have their votaries. 

(15) What gender should be used when the gen- 
der of the antecedent is indefinite? 

(a) The masculine. Example : 

If any one knows who committed the crime, let 
him testify. 

Each pupil must do his work. 

The successful is he who works diligently. 



Lesson Outline 93 



PHRASES AND CLAUSES. 



(a) A phrase is a group of words not making 
complete sense, having no subject and predicate. 

(b) Phrases are divided into three principal 
classes : Substantive, adjective and adverbal 
phrases. 

(c) A substantive phrase is one that does the 
work of a noun. It may be used as the subject of 
a verb, as the object of a verb and as a compliment 
of a copulative verb. It may be used also as an 
appositive. 

A clause is a group of words containing a sub- 
ject and a predicate, and doing the work of a noun, 
an adjective and an adverb. 

Clauses like phrases are divided into three classes: 
Substantive clauses, adjective clauses and adverbal 
clauses. 

A substantive clause does the work of a noun. It 
may be used as subject of a verb, as object, as com- 
plement of a copulative verb, apposition with a 
noun, as object of a preposition, as the object of a 
participle, as the object of an infinitive. 



LETTER WRITING. 



The parts of a letter are : 

(a) Heading; (b) introduction; (c) body; (d) 
conclusion; (e) superscription. 

The heading includes the place at which the let- 
ter is written and the date of the writing and 
whatever information is necessary in directing the 
reply. 



94 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

The introduction consists of the address of the 
person or firm to whom the letter is written and the 
salutation. 

The body of a letter contains the message. It 
may begin on the same line with the salutation, or 
on the next line below, a little further to the right. 

The conclusion consists of the complimentary 
close and the signature. The complimentary close 
should correspond in point of familiarity with the 
salutation. 

The superscription includes the name and address 
of the person or firm for whom the letter is intended, 
written upon the envelope. It should be plain and 
definite. 

Model 1. 

Boston, Mass., Feb., 12, 1890. 
Mr. W. M. Browning, 
Memphis, Tenn., 
My Dear Mr. Browning : 

Replying to your favor of a recent date, I beg to 
advise that I shall ship you ten bales of cotton 
February 20, 1890. 

Respectfully yours, 

James Dale. 

Model 2. 

St. Louis, Mo., June 5, 1912. 
W. M. Stokes & Co., 

Pittsburgh, Penn., 
Gentlemen : 

(Body of Letter.) 
Respectfully yours, 

Joe Emerv. 



Lesson Outline 95 



Model 3. 

Jackson, Miss., 2-27- '12. 
Mrs. Margaret Haynes, 

New Orleans, La., 
Dear Madam: 

In reply to your letter, 

(Body of Letter.) 
I am, 

Yery truly yours, 

W. M. Stuart. 

Model 4. 

29 Memphis St. 
My Dear Miss Flynn : 

Will you not give us the pleasure of your com- 
pany at dinner, on Friday evening next, at 6 
o'clock? Miss Foley of California is our guest for 
a short time, and we are inviting a few friends to 
dine with us on Friday to meet her. 

"With best wishes, 
Very cordially yours, 
Mayme C. Kaigler. 
Feb. 27, 1912. 

Model 5. 

Feb. 29, 1912. 
My Dear Miss Kaigler: 

It will give me the greatest pleasure to dine with 
you on Friday next and meet your friend, Miss 
Foley. Believe me always, 

Sincerely yours, 

BERTHA FLYNN. 



96 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

54 East 27th St. 

Business letters should be short and to the point. 

All business letters should be answered promptly. 

Business letters should be concise, explicit and 
courteous. The information should be given in the 
fewest possible words. All social items should be 
rigidly excluded. 

Write business letters on only one side of the 
paper and it is a good idea to keep a copy. 

Enclose a stamp for a reply when asking a 
special favor. 

Acknowledge all favors immediately. 

"When writing to a stranger, a woman should 
prefix Miss or Mrs. to her signature. 



ERRORS. 



Note. — The following are some of the errors fre- 
quently made by ministers, public speakers and 
those who ape them. These errors are especially 
noticeable, because in most cases they are made by 
persons who pose as being very learned. 

The world, in placing its estimate upon your 
literary attainments, reckons from your language 
and thought and not the school you attended, nor 
the position you hold. 

(1) I gone. (2) I does. (3) I written. (4) I taken. 
(5) I writes. (6) I goes. (7) I preaches. (8) He are. 
(9) You is. (10) They is. (11) We was. (12) You 



Lesson Outline 97 



has. (13) They has. (14) You taken.. (15) I 
have took. (18) I clone. (17) I have did. (18) 
She had went. (19) She go. (20) He had wrote. 
(21) I have ate. (22) She have came. (23) I had 
went. (21) 1 is. ■ (25) They. says. ' (26) We goes. 
(27) I tries. (28). He taken. (29) They runs. 
(30) Come in the house. (31) "Where is you go- 
ing? (32) Pass me them potatoes. (33) Pass me 
those molasses. (34) What are the news? (35) It 
is her. (36) It is mine's. (37) Can I go. (38) I 
thinks about you. (39) Every one of them are. 
(40) She have did her part. (41) He is the lead- 
ingest man. (42) She is the most prettiest woman 
in town. (43) Where is my hook at? (44) Equal- 
ly as good. (45) Give me the balance. (46) I 
didn't give him nothing. (47) Those which say so 
are mistaken. (48) He has some friends which I 
know. (49) The dog who was called Dash, bit the 
child. (50) It was Joseph that was sold into 
Egypt, who become Governor. (51) Loan me $10. 
(52) He thinks like I do. (53) I doubt if this will 
ever reach you. (54) I have heard how in Italy one 
is beset by beggars. (55) Onions are healthy vege- 
tables. (56) He had ought go. (57) She arrived 
safely. (58) She looks beautifully. (59) I have 
got money. (60) He died from cholera. (61) We 
had an awfully good time. (62) She is awfully 
nice. 

CORRECTIONS. 

(1) I went. (2) I do. (3) I wrote. (4) I took. 
(5) I write. (6) I go. (7) I preach. (8) He is. 
(9) You are. (10) They are. (11) We were. (12 
You have. (13) They have. (14) You took. (15) 
I have taken. (16) I did. (17) I have done. (18) 
She had gone. (19) She goes. (20) He had writ- 



'38 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

ten. (-21) I have eaten. (22) She has come. (2:]) 
I had gone. (24) I am. (25) They say. (26) We 
go. (27) I try. (28) He took. (29) They run. 
(30) Come into the house. (31) Where are you go- 
ing? (32) Pass me those potatoes. (33) Pass me 
the or that molasses. (34) What is the news? 
(35 It is she. (36) It is my or mine. (37) May I 
go (when asking permission) ? (38) I think of you. 
(39) Every one of them is., (40) She has done her 
part. (41) He is the leading man. (42) She is the 
prettiest woman in town. (43) Where is my hook? 
(44) As good or equally good. (45) Give me the re- 
mainder. (Balance means scales or equalizing 
weight.) (46) I didn't give him anything. (47) 
Those who say so are mistaken. (48) He has some 
friends Avhom I know. (49) The dog which was 
called Dash, bit a child. (50) It was Joseph who 
was sold in Egypt, who became Governor. (51) 
Lend me $10.00. (52) He thinks as I do. .(53) I 
doubt whether this will ever reach you. (54) I 
have heard that in Italy one is beset by beggars. 
(55) Onions are wholesome vegetables. (56) He 
ought go. (57) She arrived safe. (57) She looks 
beautiful. (59; I have money. (60) He died of 
cholera. (61) We had a very or an exceedingly 
good time. 

Awfully is colloquial slang, as used in sentences 
61 and 62. 

When there is a diversion of opinion, say I differ 
from — not with. 

Note. — If the teacher will follow the instruction 
as herein given, and give the pupils a thorough and 
practical drill in the conjugation of verbs, no pupil 
can reach this point without having a practical 
knowledge of the English language. 



Lesson Outline 



99 



MODEL DIAGRAM. 



•&M 



'■4/ > , ^Jfatwh/s 



The student will observe that the line on which 
"where"' is written is made up of two parts. The up- 
per part represents "where" as a conjunction con- 
necting the adjective clause to place and the lower 
part represents it as an adverb modifying "is 
preached." "Where" here performs the office of 
an adjective and an adverb and is called a conjunc- 
tive adverb. 



<y l ^j^> 



JL 



J^JtT, ^L 



Ar*a*// \ 



•& 



t*~ 




i^Jx-J^- 



For us to love our enemies is a task. 



=v 



/S,' | -^ 1 fe* ft/ ■ 



-?iL , w& / aj&L-' 



100 Crawford's Language Made Easy 



r \ 






TTUtJ . 



I find myself growing sleepy, but I must continue 
the writing of this book. 



7 



9 ^ 



^f 



l£*- 



~i 



/St , .At^Jb-ZI^., ss^rZZ^rlj— 



(1) Write a sentence with the noun clause used 
as subject. 

(2) Write a sentence with the noun clause used 
as attribute complement. 

(3) Write a sentence with the noun cla ise used 
in apposition with the subject. 

(4) Write a sentence with a 
with the object. 

le used as 
subjei 



Lesson Outline 



101 



Intransitive verbs may sometimes be used transi- 
tively, as : I drempt a dream ; I slept a sleep. 



\ r _^S>_ i _4 a3c£ ^ \-,&i x fAe.*Cf" 






\ 



I have lieard of him; therefore I believe him to 
be true. 



% 



.J^,) 



JL-zt&At i A. \ A 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



1. Noun. 

2. Pronoun. 

3. Adjective. 

4. Verb. 



5. Adverb. 

6. Preposition. 

7. Conjunction. 

8. Interjection. 



102 Crawford's Language Made Easy- 

Correct the errors in syntax. 

(1) The male among birds is remarkable for 
its beauty. 

(2) The man died being the third who have 
lost their lives. 

(3) In religion every man must judge for them- 
selves. 

(4) Mary or Ann will certainly bring their book. 

(1) A man was arrested with one leg. 

(2) I saw a girl writing a letter with a flat 
nose. 

(3) The preacher died and went to his rest in 
Mobile. 

(1) I am having a box made by two gentlemen. 
20 ft. long and 3 ft. high and 16 ft. wide. 

(5) He fell onto the floor. 

(6) She stopped with the lake on her back. 

(7) He went in the church. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 



. The words who, which, what and that are used 
as conjunctive pronouns. The word as also is used 
as a conjunctive pronoun after the words such, 
many and same. 

He accepted willingly such a price as was paid. 



Lesson Outline 103 



In this sentence as is a conjunctive pronoun the 
subject of was paid. Its antecedent is the noun 
price. 

No conjunctive pronoun except who is inflected, 
and who is inflected for case only. 

Which may represent a collection of persons, 
when no special reference is made to the persons 
composing the collection. Example: The army 
which suffered greatly from lack of food, went into 
winter quarters. 

Which may also he used to refer to a statement 
or to a mere name or character. Examples: You 
call me parson, which is evidence of my value. 

You called the town Plymouth, which was the 
name of the place in England whence they came. 

That may he used in speaking of either persons 
or things, and must be used when the antecedent 
refers both to persons and things. Examples : The 
painter that fell has resumed work. 

The horse and rider that left the building will 
return tomorrow. 

That is usually used after an adjective in the 
superlative degree. Example : He was the best 
preacher of all that attended the conference. 

That as a conjunctive pronoun, nevr follows a 
preposition, but it may be the object of a preposi- 
tion following it. 

Each, either and one another imply reciprocal 
action or relation and are called reciprocal pro- 
nouns. 



104 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

When a statement in the subjunctive mode ex- 
presses doubt, futurity, or wish, the plural form 
of the verb should be used. 

A verb, together with its auxiliaries forming 
predication, is called a verb phrase and should be 
parsed as a unit. 

EXERCISE. 



Analyze and parse the following sentences : 

(1) The birds of the air have gone to warmer 
climes. 

(2) At the close of the war, the South was very 
rich. 

(3) The year now closing has been like unto 
famine. 

(4) Before the springtime, some event of sad- 
ness will have transpired. 

(5) Hast thou considered death? 

(6) What is man that Thou art mindful of him? 

(7) The enemy, routed at all points, gave up 
the chase. 

(8) Thrice promoted for his bravery, be is now 
brigadier. 

(9) The colonel led his regiment precisely as he 
was ordered. 

(10) The captain will be free at the time at 
which navigation closes. 



Lesson Outline 105 



(11) To threaten me with death is to violate the 
law. 

(12) Yesterday I met James Oatis, an old friend, 
whom I failed to recognize. 

(13) There is always hope for a man who pos- 
sesses the elements of love. 

(14) I shall forever seek the beauty of holiness 
that is found in the study of God's word. 

(15) For a moment all was still, and the entire 
congregation appeared to he bathed in tears, when 
I said: "Jesus seems to say, I have given Ella, the 
hand of fellowship up here." 

(16) 0, doctor, said he, it is not the body, but 
the soul, that troubles me. 

(17)- 

When my final farewell to the world, I have said, 

And gladly lie down to my rest; 
When softly the watchers shall say, "She is 
dead" 

And fold my pale hands o'er my breast, 
And when with my glorified vision at last, 

The walls of that city I see. 
Will anyone then at the beautiful gate, 

Be waiting and watching for me? 

(18) "She has gone, too," he softly whispered, 
and the tears stood in his eyes. 

(19) And he never did. 

(20) Refusing to hear anything from the physi- 
cian, he lay silent, as far as sudden darts of pain 



106 Crawford's Language Made Easy 



would permit, till the clock struck, tkeu with vehe- 
mence, he exclaimed : 

Oh, time ! time ! it is fit, thou shouldst thus strike 
thy murderer to the heart! 

(21) "Were I to die this moment the love of hu- 
manity would be found written on my heart. 

(22) No one knows the spot where Moses was 
buried. 

(23) He prayeth best who loveth best all things 
both great and small ; for the dear God, who loveth 
us, He made and loveth all. — Coleridge. 

(24) It is better to write one word upon the rock 
than a thousand on the water or sand. — Gladstone. 

(25) We should either do something worthy of 
note or note something worthy of doing. 

(26) It is better to be a man among monkeys 
than to be a monkey among men. — Casso Calvo. 

(27) Have chickens any sense of why they 
cackle ? 

(28) The man should be paid, because he worked. 

(29) Lead is heavier than feathers. 

(30) The more I use it, the better it pleases me. 

(31) He arrived at the city just as his father 
died. 

(32) Webster was a great lawyer, a great states- 
man, a great debater and a great orator. 

(33) He who makes himself a creature of the 
dust must expect to be looked down upon. 



Lesson Outline 107 



(34) Pray lest ye fall into temptation. 

(35) The world is asking of yon, "What can you; 

do? 

(36) The man was right in .that he told what 
is true. 

(37) When punctuality goes away, business 
falls asleep. 

(38) Where shall I spend eternity, and to ;ne 
what shall the end be? 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON ENGLISH 
GRAMMAR. 



Q. Define grammar as an art, as an acquisition, 
as a study. 

A. Grammar is an art, is the power of reading, 
writing and speaking correctly. As an acquisi- 
tion, it is the essential skill of scholarship. As a 
study, it is the practical science which teaches the 
right use of the language. 

Q. What is English grammar ? 

A. English grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language according to estab- 
lished usage. 

Q. What is the object of studying grammar? 

A. The object of studying grammar is to be able 
to understand, to speak and write the language cor- 
rectly. 



108 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Q. What is language, strictly speaking? 

A. Language is any method adopted by man to 
communicate thought or feeling. 

Q. What can you say of the composition of lan- 
guage ? 

A. Composition of language is of two kinds, 
prose and verse. 

Q. Under what head is English grammar treat- 
ed? 

A. English grammar is treated under four 
heads: Orthography, etymology, syntax and pros- 
ody. 

Q. Define etymology. 

A. Etymology treats of first, the classification of 
words ; second, the properties of words ; third, the 
derivation of words. 

Q. How are words classified? 

A. In a discourse words are (classified) used — 
(1) As names of beings, places or things; (2) as 
substitutes for names or facts; (3) as qualifiers or 
limiters of names ; (4) to assert action, being or 
condition; (5) to modify an assertion or a quality; 

(6) to express relations of things or of thoughts; 

(7) to introduce or to connect words or sentences; 

(8) to express intense or sudden emotion ; (9) for 
rhetorical effect. 

Q. How are words distinguished? 

A. By the uses — Words are distinguished us : 
First, noun; second, pronoun; third, adjectives; 
fourth, verbs; fifth, adverbs; sixth, preposition; 



Lesson Outline 109 



seventh, • conjunction; eighth, exclamation and 
words of uphony. 

Q. By what general name are the different 
classes of words called? 

A. The several kinds or classes of words are 
called by the general name of parts of speech. 

Q. Why are they called parts of speech? 

A. The word parts means division, and speech 
means language, so that the expression, parts of 
speech means division of language. 

Q. Give a simple and yet logical definition of a 
noun. 

A. A noun is a name-word, 

Q. Give a complete classification of a noun. 

Noun. 

Including : Collective, Abstract, Verbal, Diminu- 
tive, Class. 

Proper and Common. 
Properties or Modification. 

Gender — Masculine, Feminine, Common, Neuter. 
Person: First, Second, Third. 
Number-. Singular, Plural. 

Case: Nominative, Possessive, Objective. Inde- 
pendent. 

Q. Define and illustrate the classes of the com- 
mon noun. 



110 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

A. A collective noun is a name singular in form, 
but plural in meaning, as: Crowd, company, fleet. 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality con- 
sidered apart from the substance to which it be- 
longs, as : Sweetness, beauty. 

Abstract nouns are derived from adjectives. 

A verbal noun is the name of an action or state 
of being, as: singing, standing, seeing. 

A diminutive noun is one derived from another 
noun, and expressing some object of the same kind, 
but smaller, as: stream, streamlet; hill, hillock. 

Class nouns are names which can be applied to 
each individual of a class or group of objects, as 
horse, apple, man. 

Q. What may be used as nouns? 

A. All words, signs, phrases and sentences taken 
technically (that is independently of their meaning, 
and merely as things spoken of), are nouns, or 
rather, are tilings read and constructed as nouns; 
because, in such a use. they temporarily assume 
the syntax of nouns. 

Adjectives made nouns: "The ancient of (lavs did 
sit."— Bible. 

Pronouns made nouns: "The nameless He, whose 
nod is nature's birth.*' — Young. 

Verbs made nouns: "Avaunt all altitude and 
stare and start theatric." — Cowper. 



Lesson Outline * 111 



Participles made nouns: "For the crying 1 of the 
poor and the sighing of the needy, I will arise." — 
Bible. 

Adverbs made nouns: "In these eases we examine 
the why, the what and the how of things. ' ' — 
L 'Estrange. 

Conjunctions made nouns: "Your if is the only- 
peacemaker; much virtue is in your if.'' — Shake- 
speare. 

Prepositions made nouns: "0, not like me; lor 
mine's beyond the sea." 

Interjections made nouns: "With hark, and 
whoop, and wild hallow." — Scott. 

Phrases made nouns: "Toward the earth's center 
is down." 

Sentences made nouns: " 'We celebrate this day' 
was printed on the banners. ' ' 

Signs used as nouns are called an asterisk. 

Q. What is personification? 

A. Personification means considering inanimate 
objects as persons endued with life, as : We say of 
the earth, "she is fruitful;" of the sun, "he has 
risen in his strength;" of time, "he flies on rapid 
wings. ' ' 

Q. Give a rule for determining what nouns 
should be considered masculine and what feminine. 

A. No uniform rule can be given, hi general, 
however, nouns become masculine which indicate 



112 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

superior strength, energy and firmness. Those, on 
the contrary, are feminine which indicate delicacy, 
weakness or timidity. 

Examples of those which are considered mascu- 
line are: sun, time, death, etc. 

mples of feminine are: moon, earth, church, 
nature, etc. 

Q. When and how are nouns made plural? 

A. When they refer to a class of the same char- 
acter they are made plural by adding s when it does 
not coalesce in sound, otherwise es; as the Chero- 
kees, the Napoleons, the twelve Caesars. 

Q. What can you say of the gender of a collec- 
tive noun? 

A. When the collective noun is used in the plu- 
ral number, or when it denotes the whole collection 
as one thing, it is of the neuter gender; when it is 
used otherwise its gender corresponds with the sect 
of the individuals composing the collection. 

Examples : Every generation has its peculiarities. 
The congregation will please retain their seats. 

Q. How are most nouns m<tde plural? 

A. Most nouns are made plural by adding s to the 
singular. 

Q. Mention some nouns that are used only in 
the plural number; some that are used in the singu- 
lar number only; and some that have the same form 
for cither number. 



Lesson Outline 113 



A, Ashes, annals, cattle, scissors, suds, tongs, 
pride, place, business, gold, news, ways, bellows, 
measles. 

Q. How are compound words made plural? 

A. In compound words the sign of the plural is 
commonly^ added to the important part, as: fathers- 
in-law, fly-trap, court-martial, song-queens. 

Q. How is a name that begins with the title Mr., 
Miss or Doctor made plural ? 

A. By making plural the title only, as : Mr. 
Harper, Messrs. Harper; Miss Brown, the Misses 
Brown; Dr. Lee, Drs. Lee. 

Q. "What is said of the title Mrs.? 

A. When the title is Mrs, or when the word 
one, two, three, etc., stands before the title the lat- 
ter noun is made plural. The Mrs. Barlows; the 
two Miss Scotts. 

Q. How are letters, figures, marks and signs 
made plural? 

A. As follows : Mind your p 's and q 's ; the 9 's 
and ~'s; the x's; the X's; those Z's and Z's. 

Define case. 

A. Case is that modification of nouns and pro- 
nouns which, by means of form or position, indi- 
cates their relation to other words, or their hide- 
dependent use. 



114 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Q. Give an outline of case. 
A. Case : 

1. Nominative, constructive, dependent, subject 
of the finite verb. 

2. In the predicate. 

3. In apposition with a noun or pronoun. 

4. In apposition with a sentence. 
Absolute Construction — 

1. By direct address. 

2. By exclamation. 

3. By inscription. 

4. By pleonasm. 

5. With a participle. 
Possessive — 

1. Construction: Limiting noun of same signifi- 
cation. 

2. Limiting noun of different signification. 
Objective — 

1. Constructions : Objective of transitive verb in 
active voice. 

2. Object of a preposition. 

3. Subject of an infinitive. 

4. In the predicate. 

5. In apposition. 



Lesson Outline 115 



6. By enallage for the possessive. 

Q. Give rule for forming the possessive. 

A. (1) In the singular by adding an apostrophe 
and the letter s to the nominative form. 

2. In the plural (a) when nominative ends in 
s, by adding only the apostrophe, (b) irregular plu- 
rals in the same way as the singular. 

Q. What exception to these rules? 

A. S is frequently omitted when its addition 
would occasion too many successive sounds of s. 

Q. "What is the origin of the use of the posses- 
sive sign ( 's) ? 

A. It is the abbreviation of the old English geni- 
tive, ending es or is; the sign (') being called an 
apostrophe, because it indicates the omission of the 
1 or i. 

Q. What is enallage as used in grammar? 

A. A change of words, or a substitution of one 
gender, number, case, person, tense, mode or voice 
of the same word, for another. 

Q. What is a pronoun? 

A. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

Q. What does the word pronoun mean? 

A. The word pronoun means for a noun. 



116 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Q. For what is a pronoun used? 

A. A pronoun is used to avoid the unpleasant 
repetition of a noun. 

Q. Into how many general classes may pronouns 
be divided? 

A. Pronouns may he divided into four classes: 
Personal, relative, interrogative and indefinite. 

Q. Define a personal pronoun. 

A. A personal pronoun is a pronoun whose form 
determines its person and number, 

Q. Into what classes are the personal pronouns 
divided? 

A. Personal pronouns have the sub-classes sim- 
ple and compound. 

Q. Name the simple personal pronouns. 

A. The simple personal pronouns are: I, thou, 
you, he, she, it ; and their plurals, we, ye, they, etc. 

Q. Name the compound personal pronouns. 

A. The compound personal pronouns are: my- 
self, thyself, himself, herself, itself; and their 
plurals, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, etc. 

Q. To Avhich of the pronouns is it customary to 
a PPly gender? 

A. To the third person singular, he, she, it. 



Lesson Outline 117 



Q. Why are not the first and second persons 
each made always to represent a different gender? 

A. The first and second persons being always 
present, their genders are supposed to be known. 

Q. What is a relative pronoun? 

A. A relative pronoun is one that may • stand 
for any grammatical person; and connects clauses, 
as: I who speak will lead the way. 

Q. What classes have relative pronouns? 

A. Relative pronouns have the sub-classes sim- 
ple, compound and double. 

Q. Name the simple relative pronouns. 

A. Who, which and that. 

Q. Is "as" ever used as a relative pronoun? 

A. As, by an ellipsis of the relative, after such, 
many, or same, seems to take its place, and may 
be regarded as a relative, though properly speak- 
ing, it is never a relative. 

Q. How are who, which and that used ? 

A. (1) Who is used when the antecedent de- 
notes a person, as: "The boy who lies." (2) 
Which is used when the antecedent denotes a lower 
animal, or a thing without life, as: "The horse 
•which I saw." (3) That is used in the place of 
who or which, as: "The girl that we saw." 



116 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Q. "What can you say of the declension of rela- 
tive pronouns? 

A. Who is varied in declension to indicate the 
case only. Which, that and what are not declined. 
But the word whose is also used as the possessive 
of which. 
Nominative — Objective — 

Who, which that, what. Whom, which, that, 

what. 
Possessive — Independent — 

Whose. Who, or whom, which, 

that, what. 

Q. When is which preferred to that? 
A. Which is preferred to that when it intro- 
duces an explanatory preposition. 

Q. When is that preferred to which? 

A. That is generally preferred to which when it 
joins a restrictive proposition to its antecedent. 

Example. — "I love the flag that moved through 
the perilous fight. 

Q. Give the peculiar construction of the rela- 
tive pronoun what. 

A. 1. What is both a relative pronoun and a 
limiting adjective, and is equivalent as an adjec- 
tive to that or those, and, consequently, has a double 
construction. 

2. The chief characteristic of the relative what, 
is its double use; being equivalent to that [thing] 
which, all which, the [thing] which, or those 
[things] which, etc. 



Lesson Outline 119 



3. What by some authors is considered a simple 
relative, by some a double relative, and by others a 
compound relative. 

In the majority of English grammars, what is 
classified as a simple relative, in some as a double 
relative, and in a few it is called a compound rela- 
tive pronoun. 

Q. When is what used? 

A. What is used only when the antecedent is 
omitted. 

Q. What pronoun is used when the antecedent 
is supplied? 

A. If the antecedent is supplied which must al- 
ways be used. 

Q. Give a general rule for parsing the relative 
pronoun what. 

A. What, when a relative, can be changed into 
that which, or the thing which, as: "Tell me what 
(that which) you know." That or the thing should 
be parsed as the antecedent part of what, and 
which as the relative. 

Q. How are compound relatives formed? 

A. The compound relatives are formed by add- 
ing ever, so and soever to the simple relative. 

Q. Name the compound relatives. 

A. They are whoever, whoso, whosoever, which- 
ever, whatever and whatsoever. 



120 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Q. Define an interrogative pronoun. 

A. An interrogative pronoun is one used for a sir- 
ing a question, in answering a question indefinite- 
ly, and in similar indefinite expressions, as: who, 
which and what in the following sentences : 

Questions. — Who did it? Which was it? What is 
truth ? 

Indefinite Answers. — I know not who did it. 

Which it was. What truth is. 

Indefinite Expressions. — Find out who did it. 

Which it was. What truth is. 

Q. What is the antecedent of a pronoun? 

A. The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, or 
equivalent expression, instead of which the pro- 
noun is used. 

Q. What may the antecedent of a pronoun be? 

A. The antecedent may be a noun, a different 
pronoun, a phrase, or a clause. 

Q. What is the subsequent of a pronoun? 

A. Interrogatives, or relatives of the interroga- 
tive kind, when they are used in asking questions, 
have no antecedents, but relate to some word or 
phrase contained in the. answer, which is called a 
subsequent. 

Q. What is the difference between the antece- 
dent and the subsequent? 

A. The antecedent and subsequent are opposed 
to each other in meaning; the former signifying 
going before, the latter following after. 



Lesson Outline 121 



Q. What are the modifications of pronouns? 

A. Pronouns have the same modifications of 
gender, person, number and case as nouns. 

Q. Define an adjective. 

A. An adjective is a word limiting a noun or 
pronoun. 

Q. Into how many classes may adjectives be di- 
vided? 

A. Adjectives may be divided into two chief 
classes, descriptive and definitive. 

Q. What is a descriptive adjective? 

A. A descriptive adjective describes or qualities. 

Example. — "The green forest glowed in golden 
light." 

Q. What is a definitive adjective ? 

A. A definitive adjective merely specifies or 
limits. 

Example. — There are many wealthy farmers in 
this country. 

Q. Into what other classes may adjectives be 
divided ? 

A. Adjectives may be divided into several 
smaller classes, namely: common, proper, partici- 
ple, compound, numeral and pronominal. 



122 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Q. Define a common adjective. 

A. A common adjective is an ordinary adjective 
that expresses quality or circumstances, as : good, 
upper, daily. 

Q. Define a proper adjective. 

A. A proper adjective is an adjective derived 
from a proper noun : French, American, "W ebsterian. 

Q. Define a participle adjective. 

A. A participle adjective is one that has the 
form of a participle, but differs from it by reject- 
ing the idea of time, as : an amusing story. 

Q. Define a compound adjective. j 

A. A compound adjective is one that consists 
of two or more words joined together, as : nut- 
brown, laughter-loving. 

Q. Define a numeral adjective. 

A. A numeral adjective is a, definitive adjective 
that expresses number. 

Q. Name and define the classes into which num- 
eral adjectives are divided. 

A. Numeral adjectives are divided into four 
classes: cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative and inde- 
finite. 



Lesson Outline 123 



Q. Define the pronominal adjective. 

A. (1) Pronominal adjectives are definitives 
most of which may, without an article prefixed, 
represent a nonn understood, as: All men, each sol- 
dier. (2) Pronominal adjectives are diminutive 
adjectives that are sometimes used as pronouns. 
(3) A pronominal adjective is a definite word 
which may either accompany its noun or represent 
it, understood, as: "All [men] join to guard what 
each [man] desires to gain." — Pope. 

Q. What modifications have adjectives? 

A. Modifications : Number and comparison. 

Q. To what adjectives is number applied? 

A. Number is applied to the adjectives, this and 
that which have the plurals these and those. One 
has its plurals, few, several, many; Each has its 
plural, all. 

Q. What is the comparison of an adjective? 

A. The comparison of an adjective is a statement 
of its different forms. 

Q. Why is this called comparison? 

A. This is called comparison, because the object 
of changing the form of adjectives is to express 
comparison. 

Q. How many and what are the degrees of com- 
parison? 



124 Crawford's Language Made Easy 



A. The degrees of comparison are three — count- 
ing the diminutive, we have four: Positive, com- 
parative and superlative, diminutive, as: Diminu- 
tive, bluish; positive, blue; comprative, bluer; sn 
perlative, bluest. 

Q. Define the diminutive degree and tell how it 
is formed. 

A The diminutive degree denotes an amount of 
the quality less than the positive. It is commonly 
formed by adding ish to form of the positive. 

Example. — Bluish, saltish. 

Q. Define the positive degree. 

A. The positive degree expresses quality in its 
simplest form. 

O. Define the comparative degree and tell how 
it is formed. 

A. Comparative degree expresses an increase or 
decrease of the positive. It is commonly formed by 
adding er or the words more or less to the form of 
a positive, as: larger, purer, richer, more common, 
less objectionable. 

Q. Define the superlative degree and tell how it 
is formed. 

A. The superlative degree expresses the great- 
est increase or decrease of the quality of the adjec- 
tive. It is commonly formed hy adding est or the 
words most or least to the form of the positive. 



Lesson Outline 125 



Q. What is comparison ascending? 

A. In ascending comparison, the comparative 
and superlative degrees are regularly formed. 1st. 
By adding to the positive of monosyllables r or er 
for the' comparative and st or est for the superla- 
tive, as : wise, wiser, wisest. 2nd. By prefixing to 
the positive of adjectives of more than one syllable 
more for the comparative and most for the superla- 
tive, as : honorable, most honorable. 

Q. What is comparison descending? 

A. A descending comparison, the comparative 
is formed by prefixing less and the superlative by 
prefixing least to the positive, as: wise, less wise, 
least wise. 

Q. What is regular comparison? 

A. Regular comparison is made by adding to 
the positive er for the comparative, and est for the 
superlative. 

Example. — Soft, softer, softest. 

Q. Give examples of irregular comparison. 

A. Positive, good; comparative, better; super- 
lative, best. 

Q. When are adjectives redundant? 

A. Some adjectives having more than one super- 
lative are redundant, as: fore, former, foremost, 
or first, near, nearer, nearest or next. 



126 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Q. When monosyllabic and polysyllabic adjec- 
tives come together, which are placed first and how 
are the}' compared? 

A. When monosyllabic and polysyllabic adjec- 
tives come together, the monosyllables are placed 
first, and all are compared by prefixing more and 
most, as: "The more nice and elegant parts." 

Q. What is an article? 

A. An article is the word the, a or an, placed be- 
fore a noun to limit its meaning. 

Q. What other name is applied to this part of 
speech ? 

A. That of definite adjectives. 

Q. Which is the definite adjective and whv so 
called ? 

A. The is called the definite article, because it 
points out some particular thing. 

Q. Which is the indefinite article and why so ? 

A. (1) A or an is called the indefinite article, 
because it does not point out any particular thing. 
(2) A and an are both called the indefinite articles 
because they are but a later and an earlier form 
of the same word, have the same meaning and dif- 
fer in use only. 

Q. When should a be used? 

A. A should be used whenever the next word 
begins with a consonant sound. 



Lesson Outline 127 



Q. When should an be used? 

A. An should be used whenever the next word 
begins with a vowel. 

Q. When is no article used? 

A. No article is used when we refer chiefly to 
the nature of the object, to the class generally, or 
to only a part indefinitely; also when the substan- 
tive is sufficiently definite itself, or is rendered so 
by other words. 

Q. Define a verb. 

A. A verb is a word which expresses being, ac- 
tion or state, as: I am George; George writes; 
The house stands. 

Q. How are verbs classified? 

A. (1) Verbs are divided according to their 
use, into transitive and intransitive: according to 
their form, into regular and irregular. (2) With 
respect to their use, verbs may be divided into copu- 
lative, transitive and intransitive. With respect to 
their nature, into active, passive and neuter. With 
respect to their form, into regular or irregular. 
(3) Verbs are divided according to the functions 
they perform, into : (I) Complete verbs ; (II) Incom- 
plete verbs. (4) Verbs are divided with respect 
to their form into four classes: Regular, irregular, 
redundant and defective. Verbs are divided again, 
with respect to their signification, into four classes : 
Active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive and 
neuter. (5) Verbs are divided in regard to the 
chief mode of combining them into principle and 
auxiliary. 



128 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Q. Define a regular verb. 

A. (1) A regular verb is one in which the past 
tense and the perfect participle are formed by add- 
ing d or ed to the present. (2) A regular verb is 
one which forms its past indicative and past par- 
ticiple by adding ed to the present by the rules of 
spelling. 

Q. Define an irregular verb. 

A. An irregular verb is one which does not form 
its past indicative and past participle by adding 
ed to the present. 

Q. Define a defective verb. 

A. A verb is said to be defective when some 
form of its parts are wanting. 

Q. Name the defective verbs. 

A. The defective verbs are ought, beware, would, 
quoth or quod, wit, wis, wot, methinks and me- 
seems 

Q. Define a redundant verb. 
A. A redundant verb is a verb that has more 
than one form for some of the modes and tenses. 

Q. Give examples of redundant verbs. 

A. Examples of redundant verbs — am or be — 
break, broke, or brake, broken, or broke. 

Q. Define an impersonal verb. 

A. An impersonal verb is one by which an action 
or state is asserted independently of any particu- 
lar subject. 

Examples. — It rains. It snows. It thunders. 



Lesson Outline 129 



Q. Define an auxiliary verb. 

A. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of 
which the different modes, tenses, number, etc., are 
formed. 

Q. "Why are the auxiliary verbs so called? 

A. They are so called, because auxiliary means 
helping. 

Q. Name the auxiliary verbs. 

A. The auxiliary verbs are: shall, should; will, 
would; may, might; can, could (having two tenses) ; 
must (with one tense) ; and do, be and have, used 
in all the tenses. 

Q. Define a principal verb. 

A. A principal verb is a verb that expresses by 
itself the act or state, or the chief part of it. 

Q. What is a complete verb? 

A. A complete verb is a verb that has an ap- 
propriate form for all the modes and tenses. 
Examples. — Love, recite, see, teach. 

Q. Define a transitive verb. 

A. A transitive verb receives or requires an ob- 
ject to complete its meaning. 

Q. What is an active-transitive verb? 

A. An active-transitive verb is a verb that ex- 
presses an action which has some person or thing 
for its object, as Cain slew Abel. 



130 Crawford's Language Made Easy 
Q. What is an active-intransitive verb? 

A. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that ex- 
presses an action which has no person or thing for 
its object, as: John walks. 

Q. What further can be said in reference to ac- 
tive-transitive and active-intransitive verbs? 

A. The subdivision of verbs into active-transi- 
tive and active-intransitive, is not only needless, 
but partial in its application. The distinction is 
made to apply exclusively to active verbs; where- 
as, it may apply as well to neuter as to active 
verbs. 



Q. What stands as an answer to what ?or whom ? 
of a transitive verb? 

A. The object or compliment of the transitive 
verb stands as an answer to the qestion what? or 
whom, with the verb. 

Q. How would you determine whether a verb 
is transitive or intransitive? 

A. To determine whether a verb is transitive 
or intransitive, we have only to use this test : Ask 
with it the question, what? or whom? and if, in its 
signification as used in the example in question, it 
has, as answer, a noun or a pronoun, meaning a 
different thing from the subject, or if one is obvi- 
ously required to complete the meaning intended, 
it is transitive; otherwise, it is intransitive. 



Lesson Outline 131 



Q. How many terms implied in a transitive 
verb? 

A. A transitive verb in a proposition necessarily 
implies three terms: A subject, a predicate and an 
object. 

Example. — Caesar (subject) crossed (predi- 
cate) the Rubicon (object). 

Q. How many terms implied in an intransitive 
verb? 

A. An intransitive verb requires but two terms : 
A subject and a predicate, as: The tempest (sub- 
ject) rages (predicate). 

Q. May some verbs be used transitively or in- 
transitively? Give examples. 

A. Some verbs are in their nature transitive; 
others are naturally intransitive ; and some others 
are used transitively or intransitively. 

Examples: (1) "Cold blows the wind." "Blows" 
is intransitive. 

(2) "The wind blows the dust." "Blows" is 
transitive. 

(3) "It has swept through the earth." Intransi- 
tive. 

(4) "Jane has swept the floor." Transitive. 

(5) "God moves in a mysterious way." In- 
transitive. 



132 Crawford's Lan guage Made Easy 

(6) ''Such influences do not move me." Transi- 
tive. 

Q. "What is a copulative verb? 

A. (1) A copulative verb is used to assert the 
predicate of a preposition of the subject, as : "Sugar 
is sweet." (2) Incomplete verbs that require 
as complement a word (adjective, noun or pro- 
noun) relating to their subject are called neuter or 
copula verbs. 

Q. "What is the principal copula verb? 

A. The principal copula verbs are that each im- 
plies in its meaning the verb to be. Thus, become 
is really to come to be; appear is to be in appear- 
ance. 

Q. What is the peculiarity of these copula verbs ? 

A. A peculiarity of these coupla verbs is 
that each implies in its meaning the verb to be. 
Thvs, "become" is really to come to be; "appear" 
is to be in appearance. 

Q. How do derivative verbs form their principal 
parts ? 

A. A derivative verb generally forms its princi- 
pal parts in the same way as the primitive verb. 

Examples. — Mistake, mistook, mistaken; under- 
go, underwent, undergone. 

Q. "What properties have verbs? 

A. To verbs belong voice, mode, tense, number 
and person. 



Lesson Outline 133 



Q. Define voice. ' 

A. (1) Voice is a property of transitive verbs 
founded on the relation of the subject to the action. 
(2) Voice is that modification of the verb which 
shows the relation between the verb a nd its sub- 
ject. 

Q. Define the active voice. 

A. The active voice represents the subject as 
acting. 

Q. Define the passive voice. 
A. The passive voice rpresents the subject as 
acted upon. 

Q. "What else can be said of voice? 

A. (1) Voice is a property that belongs to tran- 
sitive verbs only. (2) All intransitive verbs are 
in the active voice, because they have the form of 
verbs whose subjects act. 

Q. Define mode. 

A. Mode is that modification of the verb which 
indicates the manner or condition of the assertion. 

Q. Name the classes of modes. 

A. Modes are of two classes, finite and infinite. 

Q. What are the finite modes? 

A. The finite modes are those which are finited 
or limited by person and number. 

Q. Name the finite modes. 

A. The finite modes are the indicative, potential, 
subjunctive and imperative. 



134 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Q. Define the indicative mcde. 

A. The indicative mode is used to declare a 
thing as a fact or to ask a question, as: He loves. 
Does he love? 

Q. Define the subjunctive mode. 

A. The subjunctive mode represents a thing not 
as a fact, but as simply conceived in the mind, as : 
If I were a king. 

Q. What is the difference between the indicative 
and subjunctive modes? 

A. The only difference between the indicative 
and subjunctive modes is in the third person singu- 
lar of the two tenses, the present and the present 
perfect. Thus: Indicative present (If, though, etc.) 
he loves. Subjunctive present (If, though, etc.) 
he loves. Indicative present perfect (If or though) 
he has loved. Subjunctive present perfect (If or 
though) he have loved. 

Q. What is the explanation of these differences ? 

A. The explanation of these differences, is that 
in what is called the subjunctive mode there is an 
auxiliary left out — either the word will, or the 
words may, can or should. 

Q. What are the signs of the subjunctive mode ? 

A. The subjunctive is used for the most part, 
propositions express— a condition or a supposition, 
after the conjunctions if, unless, except, though, 
whether, lest or until. It is now rather used, the 
form of the indication having taken its place. 



Lesson Outline 135 



Q. Define the imperative mode. 

A. The imperative mode is used in commanding, 
exhorting or entreating, as: Children, obey your 
parents. Always tell the truth. Save me, Herbert ! 
Save me. 

0. What is always the subject of the imperative 
mode? 

A. The imperative mode is now used only in the 
second person, singular and plural, and the subject 
is generally omitted, as it is always the pronoun 
you, and the person addressed is sufficiently known 
without expressing it. 

Q. Define the potential mode. 

A. The potential mode denotes power, possibili 
ty, liberty, obligation and determination. 

Q. Why is the potential mode so called ? 

A. This is so called because potential means 
able, having power. 

Q. What are the infinitive modes? 
A. The infinitive modes are those which have 
no limitation of person and number. 

Name the infinitive modes. 

A. They are ordinarily called infinitives and 
p. rticiples. 



136 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Q. Define the infinitive mode. 

A. (1) The infinitive mode is that form of the 
verb which is not limited to a subjective, or which 
has no subject, as: to write. 

(2) The infinitive is a verbal noun, and ex- 
presses the action of the verb simply, without re- 
ference to »ay subject, as: To play. 

(3) A verb used without limitation by a sub- 
ject, is in the infinitive mode. 

(4) The infinitive mode is the name of the ac- 
tion unlimited by number or person. It is general- 
ly preceded by the sign to but not always, as : I like 
to sing; we saw him run. The infinitive is really 
a noun. 

(5) The infinitive mode expresses the action, 
being or state, without affirming it, as: to write. 

(6) An infinitive is the form of the verb that 
generally begins with to, and that expresses the act 
or state without predicating it. 

(7) The infinitive represents the action or state 
as an abstract noun. 

(8) The infinitive mode partakes of the nature 
of the verb and of that of the noun. 

(9) The infinitive is a form of the verb which 
names the action or being in a genral way, without 
asserting it of anything. 

(10) The infinitive mode is that form of the verb 
which is used to express an action, a being or a 
state of being, which is not limited to a subject. 



Lesson Outline 137 



(11) The infinitive mode is used to express an 
action not limited either by person or number. 

(12) Verbs have another substantive form be- 
sides that in ing. This form is usually preceded by 
the preposition to, and is called the infinite of the 
verb. 

(13) The infinitive mode expresses an action or 
state not limited to a subject. 

Participles and infinitives are assuming verbal 
nouns. They may be used as nouns, as adjectives 
and as adverbs. 

Q. The infinitive is usually accompanied by 
what word? 

A. To is called the sign of the infinitive. 

Q. After what words is the sign omitted? 

A. After the active voice of the verbs bid, make, 
need, let, feel and dare; after let in the passive, and 
after some other words, to is omitted. 

Q. How many infinitives are there? 

A. There are two infinitives — the present and 
the perfect. 

Q. What does the present infinitive denote? 

A. The present infinitive denotes simply the act 
or state. 

Q. Of what does the present infinitive consist? 

A. The present infinitive consists of to, combined 
with the simplest form of the verb ; or of to be with 
a simple participle. 



138 Crawford's Language Made Easy- 

Examples. — To write, to be writing, to be writ- 
ten. 

Q. What does the perfect infinitive represent? 
A. The perfect infinitive represents the act or 
state as completed at the time referred to. 

Q. Of what does the perfect infinitive consist? 

A. The perfect infinitive consists of to have, or 
to have been, combined with a single participle. 

Q. What construction have infinitives ? 

A. Infinitives and participles have the construc- 
tion of nouns, adjectives or adverbs. 

Q. What is a participle? 

A. (1) A participle is a word derived from a 
verb, partaking of the properties of a verb and of 
an adjective or a noun. 

(2) Participles are verbal adjectives which as 
verbs may require an object, and as adjectives, may 
qualify nouns. 

(3) A participle is a word derived from a verb 
retaining the signification of its verb, while it also 
performs the office parts of speech. 

(4) A participle is that form of the verb which 
partakes of the nature, both of a verb and of an 
adjective. 

(5) A participle is a word having the significa- 
tion of a verb, but the construction of an adjec- 
tive. 



Lesson Outline 139 



(6) The participle is a verbal adjective limit- 
ing a noun or forming part of the predicate of a 
proposition. 

(7) A participle is a form of the verb that ex- 
presses the act or state without predicating it, and 
generally resembles an adjective. 

(8) The participle partakes of the nature of a 
verb and of that of an adjective. 

(9) A participle is a word derived from a verb, 
participating the properties of a verb, and of an 
adjective or noun. 

(10) A participle is a form of the verb that 
generally qualifies or limits the meaning of a sub- 
stantive, by assuming some action or state in con- 
nection with it. 

Q. How many participles are there ? 

A. There are two participles, the present and 
the perfect, each of which is either simple or com- 
pound. 

Q. Distinguish between a simple and compound 
participle. 

A. A simple participle is a single word derived 
from a verb. A compound participle consists of a 
single participle with the auxiliary participles, hav- 
ing, or having bee/n. 

Q. How many tenses has the subjunctive mode? 

A. The subjunctive mode has two tenses, the 
present and the past. 



140 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Q. How many tenses has the infinitive mode? 
A. The infinitive mode has two tenses, the pres- 
ent and the present perfect. 

Q. What verbs are of the weak conjugation? 

A. There are two methods of forming the past 
tense of verbs. Most verbs form it by adding d 
or ed to the theme, as : move, live, form ; past tense, 
moved, lived, formed. 

The past participles of such verbs have the same 
form as the past tense. 

Such verbs are of the weak or regular conjuga- 
tion. 

Q. What verbs are of the strong conjugation? 

A. Verb that do not form their past tense and 
past participle by adding ed to the present tense, 
as : draw, grow, ride. Past tense, drew, grew, rode. 
The past participle of such verbs generally ends in 
n or en. 

Q. What is a paradigm ? 

A. A word given as a model by which to inflect 
other words is called a paradigm. 

Q. What is it to make a verb ? 

A. To make a verb in grammar means to put it 
into any required form. 

Q. What is it to tell where a verb is made? 
A. To tell where a verb is made, is to name the 
tense, mode, form, voice, number and person of a 



Lesson Outline 141 



verb, if these can be known by the verb itself. If 
all these facts cannot be known, name as many as 
possible. 

Q. What are the principal parts of a verb? 

A. The principal parts of a verb are the present 
indicative, past indicative and the past participle. 

Q. Why are they so called? 

A. These are called principal parts, because 
from them all other forms of the verb are made. 

Q. How are adverbs classified? 

A. Adverbs are classified according to the ideas 
they express. 

Q. What is a modifying adverb? 

A. A modifying adverb is one which limits 
words or phrases without having any connecting 
power. 

Q. What is a conjunctive adverb? 

A. A conjunctive adverb is one which introduces 
a subordinate sentence and modifies, as : We will 
know the truth when he returns. 

Q. To what is an adverb equivalent? 

A. An adverb is equivalent to a preposition 
and its object limited by the adjective from which 
the adverb comes, or by some other adjective of 
like meaning. 



142 Crawford's Language Made Easy- 

Example. — He acts wisely. He acts in a wise 
manner. 

Q. From what are adverbs derived ? 

A. (1) Adverbs of manner are mostly derived 
from adjectives by adding ly, as: wise, wisely. 

(2) Some adverbs are identical in form with 
the adjective, as: more beautiful. 

(3) Some adverbs are formed from a noun, as: 
daily, hourly. 

Q. What general rule can be given in reference 
to the position of the adverb? 

A. An adverb should be placed in close prox- 
imity to the word or words that it modifies. 

Q. What modifications have adverbs? 

A. Adverbs are modified by adverbs, other than 
that they have no modifications, except that a few 
are compared after the manner of adjectives, as : 
soon, sooner, soonest. Some are compared irregu- 
larly, as: well, better and best. 

Q. Define a compound preposition. 

A. Compound means the union of two preposi- 
tions, as : out of, from between, etc. 

Q. Define a complex preposition. 

A. A complex preposition is one compounded 
with a preposition and some other parts of speech, 
as : on account of, to the extent of, etc. 



Lesson Outline 143 



Q. How are conjunctions classified? 

A. Conjunctions are classified as to rank and 
signification. 

Q. How are conjunctions classified as to rank? 

A. As to rank conjunctions are co-ordinate and 
subordinate. 

Q. How are they classified as to signification? . 

A. As to signification, conjunctions are copula- 
v've and disjunctive. 

Q. Define a copulative conjunction. 

A. Copulative conjunctions simply correct the 
meaning of phrases or sentences. 

Q. Define a disjunctive conjunction. 

A. A disjunctive conjunction connects words, 
phrases, or sentences, yet indicates alternative, ad- 
versative, or antithetic meaning, as: He will go or 
stay; The shop was burned, but the house was 
saved. 

Q. "What is verse? 

A. Verse is language so arranged in lines that 
syllables of a certain length may occur at certain 
intervals. 

Q. now is poetry distinguished from prose? 

A. Verse is the form in which poetry generally 
appears. Poetry is distinguished from prose not 
only by this form, but by its containing more 
figures, as well as peculiar words and expressions. 



144 Crawford's Language Made Easy 

Q. How many kinds of verse are there? 

A. There are two kinds of verse, rhyme and 
blank verse. 

Q. Define rhyme. 

A. Rhyme is that kind of verse in which there 
is a correspondence of sound in the last syllables 
of two or more lines. 

Q. Define blank verse. 

A. Blank verse is metrical language without 
rhyme. 

Q. What is meant by the quantity of a syllable! 

A. By the quantity of a syllable is meant the 
time required for its utterance. 

Q. "What is a foot? 

A. A foot is two or more syllables constituting 
a portion of a line. 

Q. What is a figure? 

A. A figure in grammar is an intentional devi- 
ation from the ordinary spelling, formation, con- 
struction or application of words. 



